Time and Learning in Physical Education

Introduction

The study of time-based variables in Sport Pedagogy has a much-celebrated history as part of a developing understanding of daily life for teachers and students in physical education. Initial studies on time made it abundantly clear that time is a precious resource for teachers. As in classroom research, time-based research provided one of the most widely recognized variables relative to teacher effectiveness in physical education: Academic Learning Time-Physical Education (ALT-PE). A derivative of the classroom-based Academic Learning Time (ALT) variable, ALT-PE is defined as the time students spend appropriately/successfully engaged in a subject matter-related task (Siedentop et al., 1982). This temporal dimension of appropriate motor engagement is considered a key indicator of teacher effectiveness, because of its relationship with student achievement. It is now accepted as a process indicator of student learning

This chapter will include a general introduction to the variable of time at the class level in physical education, and how decisions (i.e. public policy/mandates) at one level affect time resources at levels below; a brief historical overview of time-based variables; a review of the theoretical frameworks that have formed the basis for much of the time-based research; review some of the core concepts; the measurement tactics relative to time-based research in physical education; major findings relative to time-based variables and their relationship to student learning; and finally suggested directions for future research.

The reader should note that this chapter will include not only research with time-based measures of learning, but also gives attention to research that measured frequency-based measures. Hence, throughout there will be reference made to the construct of “opportunity to learn.” Furthermore, the chapter's focus is limited in two ways. First, the reviewed research will only include studies that linked time-/opportunity-to-learn variables with outcomes measures in the skill learning domain. The emergence of a public health orientation in physical education over the past two decades has also produced a sizable empirical base relative to students' time spent in moderate to vigorous physical activity both during class and beyond. This important area of research is discussed elsewhere in this handbook. Second, there is mounting evidence demonstrating the influence of school-, school district-, state- and government-level policy decisions directly influence students' actual opportunity to learn. However, space limitations prevent its review in this chapter.