Madison, James (Administration)

JAMES MADISON WAS born into a wealthy Virginia planter family in 1751. During the American Revolution, Madison served on the local Committee of Safety and in 1776 he participated in the Virginia Convention that declared independence and drafted a state constitution. [Page 667]In 1777 he was elected to the Governor's Council, where he served under Governors Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson.

In 1780, Madison became a delegate to the Continental Congress, operating under the Articles of Confederation. His frustration with Congress's inability to accomplish anything led him to become a proponent of a stronger national government. After four years, he left to serve in the Virginia legislature.

Madison was a leading advocate for a convention to reform the Articles of Confederation. When a convention was called in Philadelphia in 1787, Madison arrived with a draft that formed the basis of the new Constitution. Following the convention, opponents objected to the power given to the federal government and the lack of a Bill of Rights. Madison's writings in a series of articles that would become known as the Federalist Papers and his debates against Patrick Henry at the Virginia Ratifying Convention were critical to ratification.

Madison failed to obtain a Senate seat. Instead he was elected to the House of Representatives, and only won that election (defeating James Monroe) by promising to enact a Bill of Rights, something he had opposed during ratification. Madison proposed 19 constitutional Amendments. Twelve were sent to the states for ratification. Ten became the Bill of Rights, while another was eventually approved as the Twenty-seventh Amendment in 1992.

For years Madison had been an advocate of stronger government. However, as a congressman, he began opposing such measures. Two of his main adversaries were his coauthors of the Federalist Papers. He opposed Alexander Hamilton's plan to assume state debts from the revolution, toning down his opposition only after Jefferson brokered a deal between them. He also opposed creation of the Bank of the United States as well as a large army or navy.

He allied himself with Secretary of State Jefferson as the two fought Hamilton's influence over George Washington's presidency. During the John Adams administration, Madison anonymously drafted the Virginia Resolutions, arguing that a state could nullify unconstitutional federal actions.

Upon Jefferson's presidential election in 1800, Madison became secretary of state. During this time, Britain and France were at war, giving Madison the opportunity to negotiate the Louisiana Purchase from Napoleon. The war, however, proved costly. Both Britain and France seized American ships with impunity to prevent trade with the enemy, and often taking sailors who would be pressed into service on foreign naval vessels. Because the United States had no significant navy, it could not resist militarily. Madison proposed the idea of an embargo, simply ending all trade with both countries in the hope that this would force a compromise. Instead most of the harm fell on New England, which depended on such trade. Congress eventually voted to end the embargo over Madison's opposition.

Despite the controversy over the embargo, Madison won the presidential election overwhelmingly, winning most states outside of the New England coastline. His presidency, however, turned out to be quite weak. British outrages on the high seas continued. By 1812, Madison urged Congress to declare war. Madison hoped to capture Canada and force Britain off the continent forever. Unfortunately the U.S. military was not up to the task. The British invaded all along the coastline, including a raid on Washington, D.C. Madison attempted to direct defenses, escaping only just ahead of British troops who burned the White House.

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