Human Development

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IS the gradual process of evolution and differentiation that occurs in the wellbeing of individuals over their life spans. Such changes may be economic or otherwise. Thus achievement of a higher level of income is only one dimension of development. Other dimensions include better nutrition, health, and education, and general improvements in the prosperity and security of individuals over their lifetime.

Human development invariably involves individual choices that are made given the constraints individuals [Page 511]face. Some of these constraints may be a consequence of their earlier choices (for example, unwillingness to undertake training or work). Other constraints may be beyond their control and due to the conditions faced (for instance, poor genetic endowments, illness, discrimination, or political repression). Articles in specialized journals such as Human Development offer insights into development during the human life span.

Naturally, human development necessitates expansion of the choice set available to individuals, which is often facilitated by increases in income. Clearly, many dimensions of human development, such as better nutrition, are often determined by income. At the same time, other dimensions, such as freedom of expression and political rights, are not necessarily income-related.

At a macro level, human development concerns improvements that occur over time in the welfare of the citizens of a country as a whole. Hence human development in a country may be measured through indexes combining various aspects of social development in the country such as health, education, and opportunities for advancement. Two of the best-known indexes are the Human Development Index (HDI) and the Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI).

The HDI, computed by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), is based on three aggregate indicators of development: life expectancy at birth, real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita, and educational attainment (as measured by a combination of adult literacy and combined primary, secondary, and tertiary enrollment ratios). The UNDP's annual publication, the Human Development Report, ranks countries around the globe, giving their HDI scores. The 2004 report places Norway and Sierra Leone at the top and bottom, respectively, for their levels of human development.

The PQLI, developed by M.D. Morris, utilizes what he regards as more accurate measures of well-being for individuals: infant mortality rate, life expectancy at age 1, and basic literacy. The PQLI scores indicate that poorer countries do not always suffer from low levels of human development. For instance, citizens of poorer countries such as Cuba and Sri Lanka enjoy high quality of life at levels comparable to some rich countries and higher than many rich countries.

These measures do not capture all aspects of human development, such as political rights and freedoms, the level of income inequality, and the status of women. In a step to defray criticism for not focusing on women's development, the UNDP has recently begun publishing a Gender Empowerment Measure, capturing the relative empowerment of women and men in political and economic spheres of activity—as well as a Gender Related Development Index, which makes a gender-sensi-tive adjustment to HDI, using the disparity in achievement between women and men. The nonprofit institution Freedom House, on the other hand, provides rankings for countries on the basis of political freedoms and civil liberties enjoyed by their citizens.

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