Exclusion

EXCLUSION IS a concept, state of being, and process that operates on a variety of levels. Individuals and groups can face exclusion from participating in local or worldwide activities. Social exclusion is generally considered relative to a geographic location and invokes the rights of citizenship. A broad definition of exclusion is the nonparticipation in the normal activities of citizens in a society, according to T. Burchardt et al. Thus exclusion is a dynamic concept that highlights that a range of people are forced to the edges of society and retrained in their position to take part as others can.

Exclusion has a strong material basis. Low-income employment or long-term unemployment can be a precursor or symptom of exclusion. For example, child poverty has been increasing in Britain for the last 30 years. A rise in child poverty is particularly worrisome because of the long-term impacts on a child's future, and hence the future generation. Research shows that children born into poverty are more likely to experience unemployment than children in higher-income families. Also, such children who do obtain work as [Page 330]adults are significantly more likely to be in a low-paid job. Combined with the fact that the number of low-paid workers living in poverty is increasing, then inequality and exclusion are likely to perpetuate across generations, as discussed by A. McKnight.

A common link between economic exclusion and its endurance is education. Young people who leave school with a low level of attainment, or few qualifications, are much more likely to face exclusion in their adult life. Again, individuals will be more likely to face unemployment or low-paid work. Exclusion can be experienced through education in a range of ways. The effects can have economic and social impacts. J. Sparkes and H. Glennester report that low attainment impacts the likelihood of owning one's own home, voting in elections, and impacts one's health, particularly depression. Girls who leave school with poor attainment are also more likely to have early pregnancies.

While low-performing individuals face greater exclusion than their counterparts, dimensions of social exclusion also predict performance and access at school. Growing up in families receiving income support, low parental academic achievement, poor housing conditions, experience of local authority residential care, and a negative neighborhood environment are all factors that increase the probability of low school performance. Risks are even greater if multiple indicators are experienced.

One of the advantages of the concept of exclusion is that it does recognize inequality in noneconomic factors. Exclusion can also be cultural and political. For example, individuals can be excluded on the basis of age, gender, disability, sexuality, race, religion, or location. Yet often these elements can go on to have an economic influence. S.M. Mahapa and M. Mashiri's study on women in rural South Africa shows that low-cost transport and a lack of accessibility to other areas have a direct impact on the social and economic lives of these women. Isolated in local communities, women are restricted from buying items in cheaper markets or selling their own produce. Women are then less able to save money that could allow them to travel and take a greater part in activities.

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