Heads of State, Female

Heads of State versus Ceremonial Leaders

It is critical to differentiate between heads of state in largely ceremonial posts and those with real political power. Title alone is not dispositive. Because countries have different governments and political systems, the president in one country can have significant power (e.g., the United States), while in another, the president does not (e.g., India). In a parliamentary system, the leader with the most political power is usually the prime minister; however, even in a parliamentary system, the amount of power a prime minister holds varies.

For example, Norway is a parliamentary democracy in which the prime minister is both the executive and legislative head of government. Former Norwegian prime minister Gro Harlem Bruntland was the first, and to date only, woman to hold this position, holding it three times: in 1981, 1986-89, and 1990-96. Bruntland was a practicing physician before entering politics and served as minister for Environmental Affairs during 1974-79. She was asked to serve as head of the Labor Party, hence prime minister, when the Labor prime minister resigned. Her second and third cabinets were internationally recognized because virtually 50 percent of the ministers in each were women. Along with British prime minister Margaret Thatcher, she was recognized by the Financial Times in 2004 as one of the most influential Europeans in the preceding 25 years.

In comparison, French prime minister Edith Cresson, that country's first woman prime minister, held less power. France's president chooses the prime minister from the party dominant in Parliament. When that party differs from the president's party, the prime minister has significant power. However, as was the case with Cresson, Parliament was controlled by President François Mitterrand's party and therefore Cresson had more limited power.

Even though ceremonial leaders do not have significant political power, they can play important roles. For example, both President Mary Robinson of Ireland (1990-97) and President Vigdis Finnbogadottir of Iceland (1980-96) used their ceremonial posts strategically.

[Page 668]Robinson was elected to the Irish presidency in 1990, having served in the Irish Parliament for 20 years, focusing on issues of women's equality. Robinson was adept at harnessing the power of symbolism. According to Robinson, she used the presidency to focus on international human rights issues by serving as the rapporteur of an international human rights meeting in Salzburg. As a symbol of inclusion, she placed a light in the window of her presidential residence, where that light could be seen from the public road, to make the point to members of the Irish diaspora that they are part of Ireland.

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