Ghana

Ghana has a total population of 23.4 million and an annual growth rate of 2.1 percent. Although it is a low-income country in sub-Saharan Africa, Ghana has recently achieved impressive gains in economic growth and poverty reduction, with an average economic growth of more than 5 percent since 2001. Income inequality across regions and between men and women, however, remains high and has even increased during the period of economic growth beginning in the 1990s. Women continue to earn much less than men, and poor women are the most economically vulnerable subset of the population.

Almost half of Ghana's population lives in urban areas. Rural-urban migrations continue unabated, putting pressure on the already high urban unemployment levels. Both men and women play substantial economic roles in an economy that depends on agriculture.

Many women (57 percent) are involved in farming or related commerce. Urban market women specialize in trading manufactured goods. Other common occupations for women with little or no education in the informal sector are hairdressing and dressmaking. The ratio of female to male primary enrollment is 98.7, but ensuring that girls complete school and continue education remains a challenge, partly as a result of girls marrying early or becoming pregnant. A majority of people still see childbirth as essential for women, but only 44 percent of births are attended by skilled health staff, and maternal and infant mortality remain high (210 out of 100,000, and 7.6 percent).

[Page 616]Women are poorly represented at different levels of government. The number of women in Parliament is only 9 percent. Traditional gender politics in Ghana are characterized by the concept of gender complementarity. In southern Ghana, female leaders, referred to as queen mothers, are the counterparts of the male chiefs in the traditional system of leadership. Although (post)colonial policies undermined women's traditional authority, at present queen mothers have formed associations in various regions and work together for women and children's welfare.

In Ghana, over 60 percent of the population adheres to the Christian faith. In the north, Islam predominates, and among all ethnic groups, traditional religions have maintained their influence. Women were usually among the first to convert to Christianity in the orthodox mission churches, although they were not allowed to play major roles. Ghanaian women were founders of several Spiritual Churches, widely known as African Independent Churches. The charismatic churches are the newest form of African Independent Churches in Ghana.

These churches have generated a new type of gendered leadership for the wives of today's charismatic pastors akin to the prominent roles that wives of heads of state have come to play in African politics. Members, especially the female ones, defer to them as icons of spiritual power and support. Certain traditional notions such as witchcraft and the demonization of childless women still persist, and biblical ideas that women must submit to their husbands have not been challenged in charismatic discourse, but in principle, charismatic churches may promote gender equality, as charismatic Christianity is explicit on the spiritual equality of believers.