Propaganda and Psychological Operations

Historical Background and Definitions

In his classic 6th-century work The Art of War, Chinese military strategist and philosopher Sun-Tzu cited numerous examples of commanders who confused, misled, and deceived their enemies and by so doing won victory without engaging in battle. Sun-Tzu contended that such successes were far preferable to utilizing the full weight of military force. The classic book On War (1832), by the Prussian military theorist Carl von Clausewitz, frequently cites the importance of the psychological dimensions of warfare. During World War II, both sides calculated psychological factors into their military planning. For example, Germany's blitzkrieg (lightning war) tactics stunned French defenders, while Japan had hoped that the attack on Pearl Harbor in late 1941 would be so demoralizing that America would be unable to mount an effective response.

The term psychological operations has negative connotations, conjuring up Hollywood images of ”brainwashing” and the use of trickery and lies to increase enemy casualties. However, psychological operations can be positive or negative: propaganda is information—positive or negative, true or false—aimed at supporting and advancing a particular cause. In the U.S. military, ”white propaganda” is accurate information, ”gray propaganda” provides positive views while avoiding contradictory data, and ”black propaganda” is inaccurate and deliberately misleading.

Types of Psychological Operations

Psychological operations can be divided into a number of categories: deception, persuasion, and information. In practice, most operations involve some element of each category, and these categories often overlap in tactics and techniques. All categories of psychological operations require formal, specialized planning and normally involve specially trained and equipped personnel.

Deception operations are attempts by one military force to deceive another about its intentions and actions. They can be either defensive or offensive and can be done at any level, from smallunit tactics to major strategic operations. During World War II, Allied forces created an elaborate deception to convince Germany that the invasion of Sicily (July 10, 1943) would actually take place near Greece. False documents were created and placed on the body of a man who had died of an ailment mirroring the effects of drowning. The body, dressed in a British military uniform and equipped with a false identity, was set adrift in currents that would eventually take it to a location where German agents were likely to have access to the documents. When the body was returned to British authorities, the documents appeared to be undisturbed. Closer examination proved that the documents had been opened and resealed. Shortly afterward, military intelligence reports indicated a largescale movement of German troops toward the phony invasion site. Ultimately, many Allied lives were saved.

...