McKinley, William (1843–1901)

25th President of the United States

William McKinley's administration encompassed the Spanish–American War and the colonization of Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the Philippine Islands. Although some Americans were critical of U.S. overseas expansion, McKinley's image as a successful wartime leader helped him win election to a second term in 1900.

McKinley's participation in the Civil War provided him with firsthand military experience. He enlisted as a volun-teer for the Union Army at the age of 18. Having gained widespread recognition as a commissary sergeant when he brought food and water to his colleagues pinned down at the battle of Antietam, McKinley obtained a commission and fought in the heavily contested Shenandoah Valley. He left the Army with the brevet rank of major and used that mili-tary title throughout his life.

Although his political career certainly benefited from his service record in the Union Army, McKinley was a gen-tle, even-tempered, and thoughtful individual. His wartime experience convinced him that conflict should be avoided if possible. As an Ohio congressman and later governor, McKinley exhibited a commitment to compromise and arbi-tration. During his 1896 campaign for the presidency, he never anticipated that he would lead his country into war.

A revival of prosperity shortly after his inauguration dif-fused concerns about the economy and monetary standards that had dominated the campaign. Public attention increas-ingly focused on a civil war in nearby Cuba. In 1895 rebels had revived their opposition to Spanish colonial rule, and their guerilla tactics proved remarkably successful. As Spanish authorities resorted to increasingly repressive tech-niques, U.S. newspapers portrayed the Cuban rebels in a very positive light, comparing them with American patriots in the 1770s. Such press agitation put pressure on the presi-dent to act.

Hoping for a peaceful outcome, McKinley pursued a diplomatic course, urging the Spanish government to mod-erate its behavior. By early 1898, however, the president had become convinced that the government in Madrid would never make enough concessions to satisfy the rebels. When the American battleship Maine blew up and sank in Havana harbor in mid-February, calls for American intervention reached a fever pitch. Simultaneously, many of the business leaders who had supported McKinley's moderate approach concluded that only decisive American action would end this damaging and emotional crisis. No one was surprised when McKinley sent a war message to Congress in early April.

The ensuing Spanish–American War was enormously popular. Hundreds of thousands of young men rushed to vol-unteer, the Navy was thrilled to have an opportunity to try out its new all-steel, steam-powered vessels, and the music of John Philip Sousa stirred civilian pride and passion. Just five days after Congress approved the war declaration, Comm. George Dewey sailed his small squadron into Manila Bay in the far-off Philippines and utterly destroyed the Spanish force lying at anchor.

McKinley established a war room in the White House to monitor the worldwide action. There, connected by tele-phone to various military bureaus and commanders, he made certain that no significant orders to the field were transmitted without his authorization. Even Dewey was able to utilize British cable service through Hong Kong to send and receive confidential messages in a timely fashion. The hasty mobilization put enormous strains on a War Department accustomed to supporting only some 25,000 troops. McKinley personally superintended the buildup and battlefield strategy when his secretary of war, Russell Alger, proved to be incompetent. The president was much better served by Navy Sec. John D. Long. Fortunately, the military campaigning was brief and definitive. U.S. forces destroyed the Spanish fleet protecting the southern Cuban city of Santiago in early July. The Spanish government sued for peace when American Army units encircled the city. Concurrently, detached forces captured Puerto Rico and Guam, and troops shipped out for the Philippines.

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