Urban Ecology (Chicago School)

Biotic and Cultural Aspects

To make ecological principles relevant to the study of human society, Park formulated a theory of society as composed of two basic elements: the biotic and cultural.

The biotic level is the most basic layer of society and consists of the basic requirements of life, such as access to water and soil. These factors determine [Page 863]the size of a population and the patterns of adaptation to the environment. According to this perspective, at the biotic level the principle of competition operates. In their attempt to adjust to the environment, individuals and social groups compete for the environment's scarce resources and develop a social division of labor. The competition involves some degree of cooperation, as it reflects the social division of labor, differentiation, and specialization of different functions in society.

In cities, the principle of competition is central to the understanding of the differential spatial distribution of different social groups in different areas. Urban ecologists used the term natural areas to describe the resulting social homogeneous areas of the city. The natural area came into existence, not as the result of planning efforts of the government or real state agents but from unplanned competition of social groups. Natural areas were believed to come into existence through the competition of individuals and groups for space. Once established, these areas provided homes and services for their inhabitants and carried out functions that contributed to the survival of the entire community.

The cultural level of society is built upon the biotic level. The cultural level is that part of society based on customs, norms, and institutions. It involves rules of social behavior, mutual social expectations, and social interaction.

Following this conceptualization, urban ecology has been concerned with a number of central questions that dominated the research program through the years. Urban ecology is concerned with the sources and patterns of city growth, the relationship between the spatial distribution of the city population and the social and economic resources of residents, the association between the distribution of the city population and land values, and the association between the distribution of the city population and delinquency and deviance.

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