Congestion

Congestion, directly related to density and commerce, is inherent to cities. For most of American history, slowmoving traffic on city streets, whether composed of pedestrians, horsedriven vehicles, streetcars, buses, private automobiles, or some combination thereof, has been seen as a major urban problem. Not only is traffic congestion frustrating to travelers and commuters, it can slow or inhibit commerce, limit development, and contribute to pollution. Ports, waterways, and airports also have faced frequent congestion, which often has been met with immense public investments in infrastructure and innovations in government. However, congestion always has positive connotations as well, indicative of a healthy urban economy and the hallmark of vibrant business districts. In recent decades, many planners and policymakers have focused on the positive side of congestion, even cultivating it as a means of influencing publictransportation choices.

Congestion arose in the United States along with the first cities. Urban streets, freely used as marketplaces, playgrounds, political forums, and parade routes, would seem crowded, chaotic, and dangerous to modern observers. Pedestrians confronted equestrians and teamsters on dirty and crowded urban streets, and fatalities were not unusual; early subway projects in Boston and New York enjoyed the overwhelming support of a frustrated public. American cities generally confronted congestion by expanding infrastructure, granting generous franchises and subsidies to private companies willing to invest in bridges, roads, and streetcars, which ultimately allowed for growth, development, and more traffic. Progressive Era support for public enterprise led to direct action by cities; San Francisco established the first municipal railway in the country in 1900.

Intercity traffic congestion also generated public responses; heavy use on the Erie Canal inspired a plethora of public canalbuilding projects in the 1830s. Regulating, coordinating, and maximizing traffic in American seaports were major concerns that led to the creation of powerful port boards and commissions in the 19th century and the influential Port Authority of New York and New Jersey in 1921. Today, many of the governmental entities that operate airports, public bus and rapid transit systems, and bridges and toll roads are modeled after this agency.

The rapid adoption of the automobile in the early 20th century caused an unprecedented crisis of congestion on city streets, which was very costly to modify. Motorists could and did take advantage of every space available to get through dense neighborhoods, endangering pedestrians, spooking horses, blocking and cutting off streetcars on fixed tracks, and parking haphazardly.

By the 1920s, it was common for pedestrians to move faster than automobiles in American downtowns during rush hour. As the problem grew, motorists themselves took action to relieve congestion, reduce accidents and confrontations, and prevent gridlock. Standardized systems of traffic laws and signals had been adopted nationwide by the 1930s, designed by professional traffic engineers and promoted by private auto clubs and motorists' associations.

Cities also responded by transforming city streets to accommodate the automobile at the expense of mass transportation. Streetcars were increasingly unreliable, uncomfortable, unpopular, and unprofitable. Automobiles were seen as the harbinger of progress, and boosters boasted of high percapita automobile registrations as a measure of status and prosperity. Around the country, rails were removed, [Page 187]streets were widened, and parking facilities constructed at considerable public expense. Sidewalks became more common, and street activities were conscribed and segregated.

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