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Military Sexual Abuse
Sexual violence within the military has largely been ignored by both the military and the public until the last 10 to 15 years. Increasingly, researchers as well as the Department of Defense (DoD) and the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) Veterans Health Administration (VHA) have examined the issue of military sexual abuse (MSA). MSA can be defined broadly as sexual harassment that is threatening or a physical assault of a sexual nature that occurred during military service. Studies have found that between 7% and 13% of female and between 1% and 2% of male service members report experiencing a sexual assault. Among veterans receiving care in the VHA, 21.5% of women and 1% of men report experiencing sexual harassment or assault. The study and understanding of MSA is important given the high rates of MSA, the large number of service members involved in the recent wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, the increased number of women in the military, and the documented deleterious effects of MSA. This entry examines a number of issues related to the topic of MSA. Specifically reviewed are risk factors, consequences, and current prevention programming, screening, and treatment efforts. Finally, future directions for research and public policy related to MSA are discussed.
Risk Factors
Researchers have documented a number of risk factors associated with MSA. Sociodemographic factors shown to be associated with increased risk for MSA include being younger in age, female, single, White, of enlisted rank, and having completed less education. Although women constitute a significantly higher proportion of MSA victims, the number of male and female victims are approximately equal because of the higher number of men in the military. Research also suggests there is a link between childhood abuse and increased risk of MSA.
Certain military cultural, structural, and environmental factors have also been found to be related to increased risk for MSA. Research has identified that certain elements of the military living environment, such as sexual harassment being allowed or initiated by superiors, unwanted sexual advances on duty, and unwanted advances in sleeping quarters, increased the likelihood of women experiencing MSA. The low sociocultural and organizational power that female service members often hold within the male-dominated military is also associated with increased risk for MSA. Research additionally suggests that negative masculinity (exaggerated stereotypical masculine traits deemed as socially undesirable, such as arrogance, boastfulness, hostility, selfishness, and cynicism), hostility toward women, and nonacceptance of women as men's equals among men predicts increased sexual harassment. Other elements of military culture, such as use of sexualized and violent language, substance abuse, and general acceptance of violence, may also be associated with an increased risk for MSA; however, these variables await further empirical investigation.
Consequences of Military Sexual Abuse
MSA is associated with a number of negative mental and physical health outcomes. Studies have found that MSA is associated with a higher risk of experiencing depression and anxiety disorders, substance abuse and dependence, sexual disorders, personality disorders, dissociative disorders, psychotic disorders, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Indeed, research has found that rape leads to a higher risk of PTSD than any other trauma in both veteran and nonveteran samples, and MSA has been found to be more highly associated with PTSD than premilitary or postmilitary sexual assaults among veteran women. Poorer workplace and interpersonal functioning as well as greater difficulty adjusting to civilian life have also been associated with MSA. Long-term physical health problems have also been found to be associated with MSA.
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