Calendar, Egyptian

An old Arab proverb states that “man fears time, but time fears the pyramids.” Indeed the pyramids of Giza are perhaps the most famous and recognizable structures to have ever existed, built beginning around 2500 BCE. The Egyptian civilization was not only concerned with grand projects like monumental architecture, or ethereal ones dealing with deities, mummification, and the afterlife, but also with more worldly matters such as mathematics, medicine, and keeping exact track of the day, month, and year. Until the end of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2181 BCE), the Egyptians numbered years according to a biennial census. By the end of the Old Kingdom a different system was employed that was very straightforward. Since the weather is largely unchanged throughout the year, the Egyptians reckoned time according to the inundation of the Nile, the most important event in their lives. The annual inundation renewed the fertility of the land, and it was an event for which the king himself was considered responsible in his capacity as the nearest living relation to the gods.

There were three seasons of 4 months each. The first began around mid-July, when the annual inundation began, and lasted until mid-November, when it ceased. This season was named Akhet, meaning “inundation.” Following this was Peret, meaning “rowing,” which lasted until mid-March, and finally Sbomu, meaning “harvest,” until mid-July and the next inundation. Each of the seasons was divided into 4 months, which also had names (rarely used), each with 30 days. Most monumental inscriptions begin with the date. This is written according to a standard formula. First comes the word for year (bezbet or renpet-bezbet), followed by a number. This signified in what year of the current king's reign it was written. Then comes the sign for month, followed by a number, then the season, then the sign for day followed by a number. Finally, a phrase that goes something like “under (the reign) of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt …” ends the formula.

[Page 127]A variation occurs when the month is the first of the four within a season; this can be written using only the word for “first.” Another variation commonly occurs when it was the last (30th) day of the month, in which case the word for “last” replaced the sign for day and the following number 30. The Egyptian calendar also took into account the remaining 5 days left over after the 360 counted within the system, by adding 5 extra days after the end of the year (the last day of the harvest season). These are known as epagomenal (added) days, each representing the birthday of a different god: Osiris, Horus, Seth, Isis, and Nephthys. The first day of the year was called the “Birth of Re.” As the Egyptians had no leap years, their calendar lost a day every 4 years.

The Coptic calendar, still in use today, is based on the ancient Egyptian one. Ptolemy III attempted to introduce a 6th epagomenal day every 4 years to avoid the loss, but the idea met opposition from the priests. This reformation was not put into use until Roman Emperor Augustus synchronized the Egyptian calendar to the Roman, Julian one in 25 BCE. This became known as the Coptic calendar, which is still in use today by the Coptic Church. Egyptian farmers still think in terms of the harvest season for obvious reasons.

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