Argument

Argumentation Theory

Argumentation theory has evolved over the centuries from the famous philosophers and rhetoricians of ancient Greece to modern scholars, politicians, lawyers, and others who depend on the demonstration or persuasion of their conclusions to their respective audiences. However, the basic principle remains rooted in the application of logical reasoning to a premise, with the intention of demonstrating a particular conclusion. Arguments may be presented in diverse ways, such as debates, negotiations, or scientific articles.

An argument may be structured in different ways, both formally or informally, and may rely on different types of logical reasoning. Deductive reasoning, in which the truth of the conclusion is a logical consequence of the premises (if A = B, and B = C, then A = C), takes a generalization and applies the knowledge to a particular instance. If [Page 145]the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true as well. Inductive reasoning makes generalizations based on individual examples, presenting a theory supported by evidence. These generalized conclusions are subject to invalidation if contradictory evidence is presented.

For example, the inductive argument that most birds fly and Tweety is a bird, therefore Tweety probably flies, is false when new information is presented that Tweety is a penguin. Logical fallacies are the use of invalid or faulty reasoning in an argument. Common fallacies include the “slippery slope” argument, in which the assumption is made that one event will cause another worse event without sufficient evidence of that assumption, and the post hoc argument in which a preceding event is assumed to have caused the following event.

Understanding and using logical reasoning in arguments is a key part of intellectual development across the lifespan. For example, Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development outlines a progression of stages in which children develop new intellectual skills and create new understandings of the world around them. Early stages are characterized by egocentrism and an inability to understand and see things from more than one’s own point of view.

It is not until the concrete operational stage, occurring between the ages of 7 and 11, that children start to demonstrate the appropriate use of logic. The formal operational stage, from age 11 into young adulthood, is characterized by a more sophisticated ability to understand and use logical reasoning, in addition to abstract thought, metacognition (thinking about one’s own thought processes), and problem solving.

Interpersonal Conflict

In its more colloquial usage, argument often refers to verbal interpersonal conflict and has a negative connotation. Argument is a natural part of social interaction, and learning to cope with and resolve interpersonal conflict is an important skill in social development. Argument emerges with the establishment of autonomy and individual opinion, and in young children it is usually mediated by a parent, teacher, or other adult. Arguments represent a competition of viewpoints and an attempt to persuade or negotiate with another person. Conflict often arises from challenges to or disagreements with “arguments” built on the first construal of how opinions are formed and articulated through argumentation theory.

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