Language

Definitions of Language

In 2003, David Crystal, a leading researcher in the field, defined language as “the systematic, conventional use of sounds, signs, or written symbols in a human society for communication and self-expression” (p. 464, italics added). The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, the professional association for Speech–Language pathologists and audiologists in the United States, officially adopted the following definition in 1982: “Language is a complex and dynamic system of conventional symbols that is used in various modes for thought and communication” (italics added).

The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association policy paper continues, “Contemporary views of human language hold that:

• language evolves within specific historical, social, and cultural contexts;
• language, as rule-governed behavior, is described by at least five parameters—phonologic, morphologic, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic;
• language learning and use are determined by the interaction of biological, cognitive, psychosocial, and environmental factors;
• [Page 979]effective use of language for communication requires a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and sociocultural roles” (italics added).

Properties of Language

As is highlighted in the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association definition of language, many factors influence an individual’s ability to learn language and use it effectively. Certainly, the human brain, oral anatomy, and sensory systems have evolved to support speech and language abilities. Further, language is a cognitive activity impacted by and dependent upon broader cognitive abilities such as long-term, short-term, and working memory; pattern detection and analysis; and attentional control. Both social–emotional capacity and knowledge affect the ability to engage in interactions that facilitate language learning and allow individuals to construct, adjust, and accurately interpret communications. Several key terms, properties, or characteristics of language, italicized in the above definitions, deserve elaboration.

• 1.
  Systematic use refers to the rule-governed or structured nature of language. That is, languages have identifiable regularities that make them predictable and learnable. In English, the meaning of rising and falling intonation contours is one example. Another is the typical subject–verb–object word order pattern used in active sentences (i.e., The dog [subject] sits [verb] on the couch [object]). Indeed, languages are complex systems that have structure across multiple parameters or domains. Consequently, it takes time and considerable exposure before complete acquisition of a language can take place.
• 2.
  Conventional refers to the shared knowledge of language components, their meaning and how they are used in communication. For one person who speaks a language to communicate with another, a shared code is required. For example, by convention, in English, dog is a word that means an animal with four legs and fur that barks and often lives with humans; it is a noun, and it can take the semantic roles in a sentence of an agent or a recipient of an action.
• 3.
  Languages use symbols to convey meaning. In communication, language symbols stand in for the actual objects or actions they represent. The English word dog, therefore, represents or replaces the need for the actual animal to be present. A term often discussed when considering the symbolic nature of languag, is arbitrary. For the most part, languages use arbitrary symbols, meaning that there is nothing inherent in the symbol itself that provides information about the symbol’s meaning. Use of the word dog in English, for example, is arbitrary. Speakers of English could just as easily use the word chien or makmak as long as there is general agreement that the symbol and meaning are linked.
• 4.
  Languages can be used in a variety of modalities. Spoken languages are the most common, but signed languages also exist. In addition, the same language can be spoken or written. Each modality requires use of specialized symbol systems.
• 5.
  Language is used for a purpose. It is used to communicate with others and to think. Indeed, language theorists such as Lev Vygotsky have argued that the capacity to symbolically represent the world through language is necessary for high-level cognitive development. Language becomes the medium through which complex thought processes are possible.
• 6.
  Language is dynamic and evolves over time. It is easy to see how languages change over time by comparing present-day English with the English used in Shakespeare’s time. Similarly, variation in historical, geographic, and sociological influences leads to sometimes quite extensive differences in the words, phrases, and pronunciation and to a lesser extent the grammar of a language; for example, contrast the varieties of English spoken in Alabama and Nova Scotia today. Varieties of a language such as these are referred to as dialects. Other examples of the dynamic nature of language are the introduction of new words (e.g., jiggy), the novel combining of existing morphemes (e.g., e-commerce), changes in the meaning of an existing word (e.g., he’s bad [meaning good]), or borrowing words or phrases from another language (e.g., fait accompli borrowed from French and used in English).

Language Processes

[Page 980]Information processing models of language seek to explain how language information is comprehended and produced. Comprehension can occur at a word, sentence, or discourse level. Comprehension involves perceiving, recognizing, and interpreting the meaning of incoming information (the input). New information may be incorporated with previously stored information during comprehension. Language-specific information must be interpreted within a larger cognitive, social, and emotional context. In production (the output), individuals must generate words, sentences, or larger discourse in a coherent, cohesive, and intelligible manner. Because of its generative nature, production is often more difficult than comprehension. In information processing models, some processes involved in comprehension and production are thought to be overlapping while others are specific to each. All models recognize that language is processed at a variety of levels (e.g., phonetic, phonological, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic), although they differ in terms of the specific processing components posited and the degree to which processing is done in a sequential or simultaneous (parallel) manner. Most models recognize that processing at higher language levels will affect processing at lower language levels (bottom-up effects) and the reverse (top-down effects).

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