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Pedagogical Knowledge
Today’s teachers must use pedagogical knowledge, or a variety of approaches, strategies, and techniques, to teach functional and critical thinking skills related to information, media, and technology. Given the importance of mastering core content in many disciplines, these subjects must be interwoven with other 21st-century knowledge and skills (e.g., global awareness, multiple literacies, learning and innovation skills, information, media and technology skills, career skills, etc.). In other words, 21st-century pedagogy should provide students with multiple technological opportunities to learn related to their future academic and work lives. This entry first describes the theoretical and conceptual frameworks behind pedagogical knowledge as applied to technology. The entry then describes exemplar pedagogies that promote skills such as problem solving and critical thinking, collaboration and communication, and creativity and innovation, which are crucial skills for success in the 21st century.
Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks
Technology has been used to support teaching and learning for several decades with mixed results. Several theoretical constructs undergird how individuals learn in technology-supported environments. For example, current learning theories such as constructivism, social constructivism, situated cognition, and communities of practice undergird the pedagogical choices and conceptual notions about teaching and learning with technology reviewed herein.
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK or TPACK) has been identified as a framework for what is required to teach appropriately when using technology. TPCK, a new interpretation of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), suggests that teachers need to know more than the content they teach; teachers also need to know how resources and activities may change when technology is involved. Thinking about learning and teaching with technology is important because teaching in traditional didactic ways may not be effective or appropriate when integrating technology into the curriculum.
Technology is often used in the classroom to replace, amplify, or transform instruction. This entry focuses on the last two. Teachers should focus on students’ developing critical thinking skills so they will be able to use the power of various technologies to solve real-world problems and do useful work. To learn more than facts and procedural knowledge, new pedagogical models for using technology can be used to help students develop deep conceptual understanding through active engagement with academic content.
Exemplary Pedagogies Integrating Technology
Project-based learning (PBL) is a constructivist approach that promotes in-depth learning by placing students in situations where they must use inquiry-based tactics to solve real-world problems. Similarly, challenge-based and problem-based learning have proven to be successful pedagogical models in technology-rich settings. These pedagogies require teachers to design challenges, problems, or projects that require students to use critical thinking skills and work in teams to locate, analyze, and synthesize information to find answers to problems and share their findings. Throughout the process of challenge-based learning and problem-based learning, technology serves as a tool that supports students in researching and evaluating multiple sources of information, as well as analyzing and presenting data. In the process, students engage in amplified and sometimes transformational learning experiences that develop their critical thinking, communication, and collaboration skills.
Problem-based activities—including generating lists, narrowing of topics, outlining options, debating issues, and even voting—can take place in a virtual community. Wikis allow students to meet in virtual spaces to collaborate on projects and solve problems. Similarly, blogs can be used to promote communication skills as students write and share their writing with audiences beyond their teacher. When using PBL, students also can make use of other collaborative and social networking tools such as Skype, Google, Twitter, Instagram, and numerous other Web 2.0 tools that are available for 21st-century teachers and learners.
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- Adaptive Learning Systems
- Adaptive and Responsive Websites
- Adaptive Learning Software and Platforms
- Avatars and Agents in Virtual Systems
- Cloud-Based Adaptive Systems
- Data Mining and Recommendation Engines
- Design and Creation of Adaptive Educational Systems
- Dynamic Student Profiles
- Intelligent Tutoring Systems
- Learners and Instructional Control in Adaptive Systems
- Learning Analytics
- Learning Analytics for Programming Competencies
- Learning Analytics for Writing Competencies
- Personalized Learning and Instruction
- Student Modeling
- System and Learner Control in Adaptive Systems
- Technologies That Learn and Adapt to Users
- Adult Education and Workforce Development
- Diffusion of New Technologies in the Workplace
- Distance Learning for Degree Completion for Working Adults
- Distance Learning for Professional Development
- Education in Workplace Settings
- Information and Communication Technologies: Competencies in the 21st Century Workforce
- Information and Communication Technologies: Knowledge Management
- Information and Communication Technologies: Organizational Learning
- Learning in the Defense Sector With Simulated Systems
- Learning in the Health Sector With Simulated Systems
- Learning in the Manufacturing Sector With Simulated Systems
- Learning in the Marketing Sector With Simulated Systems
- Technology and Information Literacy
- Training Using Virtual Worlds
- Wearable Learning Environments
- Web 2.0/3.0 in the Workplace
- Agent Technologies
- Analysis of Educational Needs and Requirements
- Causal Influence Diagrams
- Cognitive Task Analysis
- Competency Models and Frameworks
- Critical Decision Method
- Knowledge and Skill Hierarchies
- Knowledge Elicitation
- Learning Analytics
- Learning Analytics for Programming Competencies
- Learning Analytics for Writing Competencies
- Skill Decomposition
- Structural Learning Theory
- Think Aloud Protocol Analysis
- Workflow Analysis
- Communication Technologies
- Asynchronous Tools and Technologies
- Blogs as a Communication Tool
- Collaborative Communication Tools and Technologies
- Cybersecurity
- Data Streaming
- Digital Identity
- Message Design for Digital Media
- Multimedia and Image Design
- Social Networking
- Socially Constructed Virtual Artifacts
- Synchronous Tools and Technologies
- Wikis as a Collaboration Tool
- Digital Literacy
- Assessing Literacy Skills in the 21st Century
- Digital Literacy and Adult Learners
- Digital Literacy and Critical Thinking
- Digital Literacy in Elementary and Secondary Education
- Digital Literacy in Higher Education
- Digital Literacy: Overview and Definition
- Information, Technology, and Media Literacies
- Measuring and Assessing Literacy Skills
- Media Literacies
- Methods for Teaching Digital Literacy Skills
- Technology and Information Literacy
- Twenty-First Century Technology Skills
- Verification and Validation of Digital Resources
- Visual Literacy Skills in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Education
- Educational Technology Research
- Activity Theory
- Benefit-Cost Analysis
- Case Study Research in Educational Technology
- Cost Analysis in Assessments of Educational Technology
- Design and Development Research
- Design-Based Research
- Evaluation Research
- Experimental Research and Educational Technology
- Four-Component Instructional Design (4C/ID)
- Instructional Design Research
- Qualitative Research Tools for Educational Technology Research
- Research in Schools
- Emerging Tools and Technologies
- Evaluation, Assessment, and Testing
- Adaptive Testing
- Assessment of Attitudes and Predispositions
- Assessment of Problem Solving and Higher Order Thinking
- Automated Scoring of Essays
- Certification of Instructional Designers in Educational Technology
- Certification of Teachers in Educational Technology
- Criterion-Referenced Assessments
- Educational Data Mining
- Evaluation of Educational Technology Competencies
- Formative Assessment
- Item Response Theory
- Knowledge and Skill-Based Digital Badges
- Measuring and Assessing TPACK (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge)
- Natural Language Processing in Learning Environments
- Norm-Based Assessments
- Objectives-Based Assessments
- Performance Assessment
- Program Evaluation
- Stealth Assessment
- Summative Assessment
- Feedback and Measurement Tools and Technologies
- Data Sensing and Visualization Systems
- Diagnostic Feedback in Formal Educational Settings
- Diagnostic Feedback in Informal Educational Settings
- E-Portfolio Technologies
- E-Portfolios in Higher Education
- E-Portfolios in K–12 Education
- Learning Analytics
- Learning Analytics for Programming Competencies
- Learning Analytics for Writing Competencies
- Recommendation Engines
- Reflection and Preflection Prompts and Scaffolding
- Repair Theory
- Student Response Systems
- Game-Based Learning
- Alignment of Games and Learning Goals
- Assessment in Game-Based Learning
- Games and Transformational Play
- Games for Adult Learners
- Games in Business and Industry Settings
- Games in Elementary and Middle School Settings
- Games in High School Settings
- Games in Higher Education
- Games in Medical Training
- Games in Military Training
- Games to Promote Inquiry Learning
- Games: Impact on Interest and Motivation
- Games: Impact on Learning
- Gamification
- Management Flight Simulators
- Serious Games
- Video Games and Student Assessment
- History of Educational Technology
- Informal Learning
- Design of Engaging Informal Learning Places and Spaces
- Informal Learning Strategies
- Information and Communication Technologies for Informal Learning
- Integrating Informal Learning with Programs at the College/University Level
- Integrating Informal Learning with School Programs at the Secondary Level
- Learning in Museums
- Learning in Outdoor Settings
- Measuring Learning in Informal Contexts
- Seamless Learning
- Ubiquitous Learning
- Virtual Tours
- Information Tools and Technologies
- Cloud Computing
- Cloud-Based Adaptive Systems
- Collaborative Communication Tools and Technologies
- E-Book Standards
- Geographic Information Systems and Education
- Information and Communication Technologies for Formal Learning
- Information and Communication Technologies for Informal Learning
- Information and Communication Technologies in Developed Countries
- Information and Communication Technologies in Developing Countries
- Information and Communication Technologies in Multinational and Multicultural Contexts
- Information and Communication Technologies: Competencies in the 21st Century Workforce
- Information and Communication Technologies: Knowledge Management
- Information and Communication Technologies: Organizational Learning
- Mobile Tools and Technologies for Learning and Instruction
- Planning for Technology Upgrades and Improvements
- Podcasting for Learning and Information Sharing
- Radio Frequency Identification in Education
- Repositories for Learning and Instructional Apps
- Infrastructure Development
- Instructional Design
- Cognitive Apprenticeship
- Cognitive Flexibility Theory
- Cognitive Load Theory
- Component Display Theory
- Conditions of Learning: Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction
- Curricula for Advanced Learning Technologies
- Four Component Instructional Design (4C/ID)
- Instructional Design Models
- Instructional Design Practice
- Instructional Design Research
- Instructional Designer Preparation
- Multimedia and Image Design
- Self-Regulated E-Learning Design Principles
- Technology-Facilitated Experiential Learning
- Instructional and Learning Strategies
- Anchored Instruction
- Case-Based Reasoning and Educational Technology
- Conditions of Learning
- Cultural Considerations in Technology-Enhanced Learning and Instruction
- Distributed Cognitions in Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning
- Elaboration Theory
- Embodied Learning Systems
- Engaged Learning
- Informal Learning Strategies
- Instructional Transaction Theory
- Mindtools
- Model-Based Approaches
- Multimedia and Image Design
- Problem- and Task-Centered Approaches
- Technology Support for Conceptual Change
- Technology-Enhanced Inquiry Learning
- Technology-Facilitated Experiential Learning
- Interactive and Immersive Multimedia
- 3D Immersive Environments
- Biofeedback Learning Environments
- Haptic Technologies to Support Learning
- Head-Mounted Displays in Learning and Instruction
- Holographic Imaging in Learning and Instruction
- New Visual World and Future Competencies
- Simulation-Based Learning
- Training Using Virtual Worlds
- Transmedia in Education
- Virtual Worlds
- Internet and Information Resources
- Cloud Computing
- Cloud-Based Adaptive Systems
- Creative Commons
- Desktop and Virtual Publishing
- Digital Archives
- Digital Curation
- Digital Storytelling
- Intellectual Property
- Internet of Things
- Internet: Impact and Potential for Learning and Instruction
- Metatagging of Learning Objects and Apps
- Online Mentoring
- Web Analytics
- Journals
- Mobile Technologies
- 3G and 4G Networks
- Apps for Use at the Elementary Level
- Apps for Use at the Secondary Level
- Apps for Use in Higher Education
- Integrated and Networked Mobile Devices for Learning and Instruction
- Learning and Instructional Apps
- Mobile Assistive Technologies
- Mobile Devices: Impact on Learning and Instruction
- Mobile Tools and Technologies for Learning and Instruction
- Radio Frequency Identification in Education
- Remote Sensing Technologies
- Tablet Devices in Education and Training
- Touch-Based and Gesture-Based Devices
- Wearable Learning Environments
- Open Access Resources
- Performance Technologies
- Psychological and Social Issues and Perspectives
- Accelerated Learning
- Affective Factors in Learning, Instruction, and Technology
- ARCS Model
- Behavioral Factors in Learning, Instruction, and Technology
- Cognition and Human Learning
- Cognitive Load Theory
- Constructivist Theory
- Cyberbullying
- Digital Divide
- Dual Coding Theory
- Educational Technology, Philosophical Perspectives on
- Experiential Learning
- Human-Computer Interaction
- Intersubjectivity and Educational Technology
- Motivation, Emotion Control, and Volition
- Neuroscience and Learning
- Situated Learning
- Vulnerability in Learning
- Simulation and Modeling Technologies
- Social Media
- Second Self
- Collaboration and Social Networking
- Integrating Social Media Into Learning and Instruction
- Measuring Contacts and Interactions in Social Networks
- New Visual World and Future Competencies
- Semantic Web
- Social Media and Networking
- Social Media in Elementary School Settings
- Social Media in Higher Education
- Social Media in Secondary School Settings
- Social Media in the Workplace
- Social Media, Identity in
- Social Network Analysis
- Social Networking
- Web 2.0 and Beyond
- Special Education
- Assistive Technology
- Assistive Technology for Persons With Autism Spectrum Disorder
- Gesture-Based Learning and Instructional Systems
- Technologies for Persons With Dyslexia
- Technologies for Persons With Hearing Impairments
- Technologies for Persons With Physical Disabilities
- Technologies for Persons With Visual Impairments
- Technologies for Students With Attention Deficit Disorder
- Technologies to Enhance Communication for Persons With Autism Spectrum Disorder
- Universal Design
- Universal Design for Learning
- Teaching and Learning With Technology
- Badges and Skill Certification
- Collaborative Learning and 21st-Century Skills
- Collaborative Learning With Technology
- Leadership in E-Learning
- Learning and Instructional Apps
- Learning by Modeling
- Learning Objects
- Massive Open Online Courses
- Measuring and Assessing TPACK (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge)
- Natural Language Processing in Learning Environments
- Pedagogical Knowledge
- Personal Learning Environments
- Seamless Learning
- Self-Regulated E-Learning Design Principles
- Technologies for Critical Thinking Development
- Technologies for Gifted Students
- Technologies in Arts Education
- Technologies in Humanities Education
- Technologies in Mathematics Education
- Technologies in Medical Education
- Technologies in Science Education
- Technologies Supporting Self-Regulated Learning
- Technologies to Support Engineering Education
- Technology Knowledge
- Technology, Pedagogy, and the Learning Society
- TPACK (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge)
- TPACK (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge): Implications for 21st-Century Teacher Education
- Twenty-First-Century Technology Skills
- Virtual Learning Environments
- Virtual Schools and Programs
- Virtual Teams
- Technology Diffusion and Integration
- Change Agency
- Diffusion of Distance Education
- Diffusion of New Technologies in the Workplace
- Disruptive Innovations
- Disruptive Technologies
- Early Adopters
- Emerging Educational Technologies
- Innovators and Risk Takers in Education
- Predicting Change and Adoption of Technology Innovations
- Systemic Change and Educational Technology
- Technology Integration
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