Residential Schools, Segregation in

The education of White deaf children started in 1817 in Hartford, Connecticut. The education of Black Deaf children did not begin until approximately 50 years later. Geographical and social factors played an important role in the formation of the Black Deaf schools and consequently in the development of a separate variety of American Sign Language (ASL). [Page 768]The geographic factors include the isolation of one community from another created by geographic and political boundaries (where people live—or are allowed to live). Schools for Black Deaf children were often physically isolated. Separate schools, as well as so-called colored departments of White schools, were established in southern and border states. Sometimes, the colored department was on the same campus as the White school (as in Kansas and Missouri), but in other states, these departments were physically separated (as in in Georgia and Mississippi). The same geographic and social factors that promote the formation of spoken language varieties also surround the formation of Black ASL. Not surprisingly, Black Deaf people were affected both by the same racial discrimination of the era that affected Black hearing people and by the same social isolation and marginalization due to race that contributed to the development and maintenance of African American English (AAE). Racial discrimination was present in local, state, and regional organizations in the Deaf community. The National Association of the Deaf (NAD) was founded in 1880. At first, the association welcomed Black Deaf Americans. According to Susan Burch and John Tabak, in 1925, the Cleveland Conference of the NAD revoked the membership of the Black members, changing the bylaws to prohibit Black Deaf membership. Black people (and women) had to wait until 1964 to gain the right to vote in the association.

Racial segregation in its modern form began in the late 1800s. Slavery, which had existed in the United States for more than 200 years prior to the Civil War, resulted in a public policy in the South that prohibited the education of Blacks. It was illegal during that era to teach Blacks, whether slave or free, to read or write because the White power structure feared the potential influence of educated Black people. In addition, if Black people were educated, claims of inferiority would be harder to maintain. Those discovered learning to read or write were frequently severely punished.

Schools for the Deaf belatedly reflected the changing attitudes in American society. Additional attempts were made to provide education for Black deaf children. In 1856, Dr. Platt H. Skinner established the P. H. Skinner School for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind in Niagara Falls, New York. Although Skinner’s background was controversial, he is still considered a pioneer. He is probably the first educator to attempt to provide formal education for Black deaf students. He was also an abolitionist who taught fugitives and free slaves to read and write. In 1859, Skinner wrote the following: