Persian Gulf War

History of the Conflict

Prior to the conflict, Iraq and Kuwait had a long-standing border dispute that had caused tension between the two countries for decades. In particular, Iraq accused Kuwait of drawing oil from fields on the Iraqi side of the border. Following the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988), Iraq was heavily in debt and desperate to increase its oil revenue. At this time, the price of oil declined, and Iraq accused Kuwait of deliberately manipulating world oil markets to Iraq's disadvantage. Experts now believe that President Saddam Hussein of Iraq acted against Kuwait in the hope of annexing the country and its oil fields, thereby making up Iraq's shortfall in oil revenues. Anti-Kuwaiti rhetoric became more and more evident and shrill in the Iraqi press and in official statements in months leading up to Iraq's August 2, 1990, invasion of Kuwait.

Foreign policy experts in the U.S. government were preoccupied in the late 1980s and early 1990s with the fall of Communism in Europe and the geopolitical implications of the end of the Cold War; in comparison, the Iraq-Kuwait border dispute seemed minor. Following the hardships of the Iran-Iraq War, most analysts expected Iraq to begin to rebuild its economy and society. That the U.S. government would not countenance an Iraqi invasion in the volatile Gulf region was considered self-evident, and Iraq's anti-Kuwaiti rhetoric was perceived as blustering.

Taken by surprise, the U.S. government now questioned assumptions it had made about the Iraqi regime. If Hussein had been so foolish as to invade Kuwait, he might also attempt to invade Iraq's other neighbors—in particular, oil-rich Saudi Arabia. Such instability in the region could drive up world oil prices and be a serious risk to the U.S. economy. The United States began to assemble a coalition to prevent further invasion and put pressure on Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait.

The United States was not alone; the United Nations passed a resolution condemning the invasion and calling for an immediate withdrawal, and within a week it had passed a resolution calling [Page 478]for an economic embargo against Iraq. Both resolutions passed almost unanimously. At the same time, the U.S.–led coalition, which included several Arab nations, began sending troops to Saudi Arabia. Eventually, more than 300,000 troops would participate in “Operation Desert Shield,” with the United States supplying most of the military personnel and other coalition members supplying the funds. Over the next few months, as diplomatic efforts and an embargo failed to compel an Iraqi withdrawal, President George Bush successfully lobbied the UN to approve the use of force against Iraq. The UN passed a resolution on November 29, 1990, demanding that Iraq withdraw before January 15, 1991, or face the prospect of war. The coalition forces then doubled the number of troops they had in the region.

Iraq did not respond to the UN ultimatum, believing the threat of war to be a bluff. On January 16, 1991, Operation Desert Shield became Operation Desert Storm; led by the U.S. Air Force, the coalition forces began a campaign of air bombardment that decimated Iraqi defenses over the next several weeks. On February 23, after additional U.S. demands for unconditional withdrawal from Kuwait had been refused by Iraq, the coalition forces began a ground campaign. After just four days of fighting, the majority of the Iraqi army had either surrendered or fled, and Kuwait was in the hands of Allied forces.

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