Cross-Sectional Data

Cross-sectional data are data that are collected from participants at one point in time. Time is not considered one of the study variables in a cross-sectional [Page 171]research design. However, it is worth noting that in a cross-sectional study, all participants do not provide data at one exact moment. Even in one session, a participant will complete the questionnaire over some duration of time. Nonetheless, cross-sectional data are usually collected from respondents making up the sample within a relatively short time frame (field period). In a cross-sectional study, time is assumed to have random effect that produces only variance, not bias. In contrast, time series data or longitudinal data refers to data collected by following an individual respondent over a course of time.

The terms cross-sectional design and cross-sectional survey often are used interchangeably. Researchers typically use one-time cross-sectional survey studies to collect data that cannot be directly observed, but instead are self-reported, such as opinions, attitudes, values, and beliefs. The purpose often is to examine the characteristics of a population.

Cross-sectional data can be collected by self-administered questionnaires. Using these instruments, researchers may put a survey study together with one or more questionnaires measuring the target variable(s). A single-source cross-sectional design asks participants to provide all data about themselves with the questionnaire generally administered in a single session. A multi-source cross-sectional design gathers data from different sources, such as the sampled respondents, their supervisors, coworkers, and/or families, with different questionnaires administered to the different populations.

Cross-sectional data can also be collected by interviews. There are one-to-one interviews, panel interviews, and focus groups. In a one-to-one interview, a participant is questioned by one interviewer. In a panel interview, a participant is interviewed by a group of interviewers. In a focus group, a group of participants are simultaneously asked about their attitudes or opinions by a discussion leader or facilitator.

Cross-sectional data can be gathered from individuals, groups, organizations, countries, or other units of analysis. Because cross-sectional data are collected at one point in time, researchers typically use the data to determine the frequency distribution of certain behaviors, opinions, attitudes, or beliefs. Researchers generally use cross-sectional data to make comparisons between subgroups. Cross-sectional data can be highly efficient in testing the associations between two variables. These data are also useful in examining a research model that has been proposed on a theoretical basis. Advanced statistical tests, such as path analytic techniques, are required to test more complex associations among multiple variables. The biggest limitation of cross-section data is that they generally do not allow the testing of causal relationships, except when an experiment is embedded within a cross-sectional survey. Cross-sectional data are widely used in social science research. Some advantages in conducting cross-section studies include the following:

• 1.
  Research participants are usually more willing to cooperate in a one-time survey research study than a series of multiple surveys taken at different points in time.
• 2.
  Researchers do not need to worry about the attrition problems that often plague longitudinal studies, with some respondents not providing data at subsequent survey waves.
• 3.
  Researchers are able to collect cross-sectional data from multiple individuals, organizations, countries, or other entities.
• 4.
  Compared to longitudinal surveys, cross-sectional data are less expensive and less time consuming to gather.

However, there also are disadvantages with cross-sectional data. For example, cross-sectional data are not appropriate for examining changes over a period of time. Thus, to assess the stability of social or psychological constructs, longitudinal data are required.

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