Theory Construction

The Context of Theories

Theories are repositories of general knowledge. Through testing and refinement, scientific theories change over time in ways that lead them to provide increasingly accurate explanations for ever-widening ranges of phenomena. Their accumulated wisdom far exceeds the ability of common sense to explain the complex world around us. However, sociologists hold different conceptions of what a theory actually is and so do not all agree on criteria for building and evaluating them. Some use the term very broadly so that it includes virtually any sociological conjecture. Others apply more stringent criteria that actually rule out much that usually is called “theory” in sociology. The compromise [Page 831]adopted here is to distinguish two different kinds of intellectual products: theories and quasi-theories.

Quasi-theories are known by a variety of labels, including perspectives, frameworks, orientations, metatheories, and somewhat confusingly, theories. As will be illustrated shortly, there are explicit criteria for defining, constructing, and evaluating theories. In contrast, there is no such thing as a uniform set of criteria for quasi-theories. They are loosely bound areas of theoretical work that may include raw ideas, classic statements, discussions about theories or other quasi-theories, sensitizing concepts, empirical observations, research strategies, provisional generalizations, expressions of values, authoritative proclamations, and so on. Despite their indefinite form, however, quasi-theories have played a key role in sociology's development, mainly because they inspire research and new theorizing.

Quasi-theory is just one of several contextual factors that influence the development of theory. Others include prior theories and research findings. Brand-new theories are relatively uncommon, and most new theoretical developments build on existing theories in response to empirical observations. Sociologists of science and other scholars identify still more factors that influence theories directly and indirectly: norms and mechanisms for funding; review and publication practices; the politics of academic disciplines; and even personal characteristics of the theorists themselves. These affect theory primarily by coloring value judgments regarding which issues warrant attention, but they also may introduce bias into the process whereby theories are accepted or rejected. However, upholding rigorous standards for theory construction (and for the empirical testing of theories) at least reduces the unwanted impact of factors unrelated to the accuracy of the theory's claims.

The Elements of Theories

A well-constructed theory should have several identifiable components that work together as a system. Although some theorists develop these components in an explicit and self-conscious way, this is generally not the case. However, inattention to a theory's form can impede its function by making it more difficult to identify weaknesses. The various components of theories and their connections to the empirical world are identified next. Following that, there is a discussion of some of the qualities that distinguish better theories.

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