Markovsky, Barry

Barry Markovsky (b. 1956) is a social theorist and proponent of integrating theory with empirical research to develop social structural theories that span multiple levels of analysis. His theoretical work has contributed to the explanation of such diverse social phenomena as power, influence, status, legitimacy, equity and justice, and social solidarity.

Markovsky's approach to social theory was shaped by his training in theory construction at Stanford University and especially by his mentor, Bernard P. Cohen, whose influential book, Developing Sociological Knowledge (1989), provides techniques for sociologists who do empirical research to build testable theories. The theory construction approach sees theory not as a separate subfield of sociology but rather as a part of sociological methodology that can be practiced by all sociologists. Theoretical and empirical methods are integrated into theoretical research programs that both develop theories and cumulate knowledge.

From the beginning of his career, Markovsky has made important contributions to established theoretical research programs. Joseph Berger and his colleagues developed status characteristics theory to explain how macro social structure is imported into small groups to shape the behavior of individuals working together. Markovsky joined the research team while still a graduate student and led the development of research explaining how the imported social structure of work groups reproduces itself as individuals leave the group and are replaced by others.

Theory construction uses the tools of symbolic logic and mathematics to explicate causal relationships among social variables. Markovsky contributed to metatheory (theorizing about how theories are developed) by showing that an adequate social theory necessarily involves analysis at multiple social levels. While macro social structure cannot be reduced to microinteraction among individuals, neither are the two independent systems.

Markovsky conceived social structure in ways that span levels of analysis to establish new theoretical research programs. With David Willer and other colleagues, he developed network exchange theory, which has quantified the effects of social structure on the power of individuals in networks. Even in small groups, social structure can often produce larger effects on behavior than can the characteristics of individuals. In other networks, however, social structural effects are dampened, allowing individual propensities freer reign. Network exchange theory explains how the pattern of structural relationships that represent any particular network determines the power of the various positions within that network. Moreover, as the theory has developed through empirical validation of its various aspects, it can accurately predict the relative power of different network positions.

In perhaps his most dramatic demonstration of the relationship among social processes at different levels of analysis, Markovsky showed that social structure has physiological effects on feelings of injustice that can then alter social interaction among individuals in ways predicted by theories of equity and distributive justice. By explaining physiological reactions as consequences of social structure as well as causes of social behavior, he presaged recent research on complex interactions between social processes and physiological development.

The best illustration of Markovsky's structural approach to social theory construction may be the theory of group solidarity that he developed with Edward Lawler. Durkheim initiated the sociological study of group solidarity as the affective ties that bind individuals to groups. He proposed that mechanical solidarity emerges from the positive emotion engendered by group members engaged in similar activities, while organic solidarity emerges less strongly from the interdependence of group members created by the division of labor. Modern theories of group [Page 473]solidarity such as those of Michael Hechter and James Coleman had focused on the interdependence that is characteristic of organic solidarity. These “utilitarian” theories proposed that solidarity exists to the extent that a rational actor would contribute resources to the group. Thus, they emphasize group norms and sanctions against free-riding members that provide incentives to contribute to the group. Markovsky and Lawler's theory formalized the earlier understanding of group solidarity as primarily emotional in origin, the group-feeling that emerges as members work together. These theories suggest that solidarity results when affective bonds tie members to a group over and above the prospect of individual material gain.

...