Stigma

Definition

Stigma is an attribute or characteristic that marks a person as different from others and that extensively discredits his or her identity. Ancient Greeks coined the term stigma to describe a mark cut or burned into the body that designated the bearer as someone who was morally defective, such as a slave, criminal, or traitor. Sociologist Erving Goffman resurrected the term, defining stigma as an attribute that spoils a person's identity, reducing him or her in others' minds “from a whole and usual person to a tainted, discounted one.” Stigmatizing marks are associated with negative evaluations and devaluing stereotypes. These negative evaluations and stereotypes are generally well known among members of a culture and become a basis for excluding, avoiding, and discriminating against those who possess (or are believed to possess) the stigmatizing mark. People who are closely associated with bearers of stigma may also experience some of the negative effects of stigma, a phenomenon known as stigma by association.

Stigma does not reside in a person but in a social context. For example, within the United States, gays and lesbians are stigmatized across a range of situations, but not in a gay bar. African Americans are stigmatized in school but not on the basketball court. This contextual aspect of stigma means that even attributes that are not typically thought of as being stigmatizing may nonetheless lead to social devaluation in some social contexts (e.g., being heterosexual at a gay pride rally). Some marks, however, are so pervasively devalued in society that they cause bearers of those marks to experience stigmatization across a wide range of situations and relationships. The consequences of stigmatization are far more severe for these individuals than for those who experience stigmatization only in very limited contexts.

Types and Dimensions

Goffman categorized stigmatizing marks into three major types: tribal stigma, abominations of the body, and blemishes of character. Tribal stigmas are passed from generation to generation and include membership in devalued racial, ethnic, or religious groups. Abominations of the body are uninherited physical [Page 945]characteristics that are devalued, such as obesity or physical deformity. Blemishes of character are individual personality or behavioral characteristics that are devalued, such as being a child abuser or rapist.

Stigmas also differ on important dimensions, such as the extent to which they are concealable, controllable, and believed to be dangerous. These differences have important implications for how the stigmatized are treated by others, and how stigma is experienced by those who have a stigmatizing condition.

Some marks (e.g., obesity) are visible or cannot be easily concealed from others, whereas others (e.g., being a convicted felon) are not visible or can more easily be concealed. Individuals whose stigma is visible must contend with different issues than do those whose stigma is invisible. The visibly stigmatized are more likely to encounter avoidance and rejection from others than those whose stigmas are concealed. Consequently, the former may be more likely to interpret others' behavior in terms of their stigma and be more concerned with managing others' treatment of them. People whose stigmas are concealable, in contrast, have a different set of concerns. Although they may be able to “pass” or hide their stigma from others, they may be preoccupied with figuring out the attitudes of others toward their (hidden) stigma and with managing how and when to disclose their stigma to others. They must live with the fear of others finding out about their stigma, and of being discredited. They may also have a harder time finding others like themselves to interact with, which may lead to social isolation and lowered self-esteem.

...