Social Learning

Definition

Social learning refers to the learning that occurs in social contexts. More precisely, it refers to adaptive behavior change (learning) stemming from observing other people (or other animals), rather than learning from one's own direct experience. People acquire and change social behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions from observing and imitating the actions demonstrated by models such as parents or peers. This learning occurs from merely observing the actions of others and from observing the consequences of their actions. For example, if you see someone else touch a hot plate and then pull his or her hand away in pain, you do not have to imitate or repeat the action yourself: [Page 907]You will avoid touching the hot plate as if you yourself had been burned by it.

Background and History

In the first half of the 20th century, psychological theories of learning were primarily behavioral in nature, focusing on direct consequences of one's own actions. For example, in B. F. Skinner's operant conditioning theory, learning occurs through the experience of rewards or reinforcements, such as studying behaviors being reinforced with good grades. The rigid adherence to environmental rewards and punishments in the behaviorist models was addressed by John Miller and Neal Dollard's work in the 1940s on social learning that highlighted the importance of the social setting on learning. Although this research had limitations (e.g., they maintained that learning could not occur without imitation and reinforcement), it did underscore the role of internal, cognitive processes in learning and it spurred considerable theoretical work and empirical research into social learning.

Probably the most influential and comprehensive researcher and theorist in social learning is Albert Bandura. He introduced his social learning theory in the 1970s, which suggests that although humans do learn from the responses they receive when they engage in behaviors (such as a painful burn reinforcing the need to use a potholder to remove items from a hot oven), most human behavior is learned through the observation and modeling of others' behaviors. According to social learning theory, children may learn how to behave in a restaurant setting by mimicking the behavior of their parents, and adolescents may learn their political attitudes by listening to conversations of adults. Social learning theory is a synthesis of cognitive and behavioral approaches to understanding learning: It is behavioral in its emphasis on the observation and mimicking of models, but it is cognitive in that it highlights the human ability to think, anticipate outcomes, and symbolize.

In the 1970s, Bandura expanded his theory to include an important element missing from theories on social learning: self-beliefs. He renamed his theory social cognitive theory to highlight the importance of cognition in learning, motivation, and behavior. From this theoretical perspective, human functioning is a product of the dynamic interaction between environmental, personal, and behavioral influences; this dynamic interplay is referred to as reciprocal determinism. For example, if an individual receives a poor grade on an exam (environmental factor) that may affect his or her belief (personal factor) about his or her ability in that domain, which in turn would influence his or her behavior (changed approaches to studying), and his or her behavior influences his or her environment (the individual now convenes a study group to prepare for exams).

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