Ideology

Definition

Ideology refers to a system of interrelated beliefs and values belonging to an individual or group, usually but not exclusively in the political realm. It is typically measured on a left or right (or liberal or conservative) dimension. Research in psychology focuses largely on the extent to which people's attitudes are organized according to ideological schemata and whether they are linked to personality and other individual differences.

History of the Concept

The concept of ideology originates in the late 18th century and was used first to refer to the science of ideas, a discipline that is now called the sociology of knowledge. The term was later adopted by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels and was used in two different senses, both of which are still common: (1) a neutral sense, in which ideology refers to any abstract or symbolic meaning system; and (2) a pejorative (insulting) sense, in which ideology denotes a web of ideas that are systematically distorted, contrary to fact, and subject to false consciousness. Typically, an ideology stands in relation to a social system, either as an affirmation of the status quo or in opposition to it.

Although specific ideologies can pertain to cultural, economic, political, religious, and even scientific matters, the most common use of the term is in the political realm. Examples of political ideologies include communism, socialism, liberalism, conservatism, and fascism. Most political ideologies can be located parsimoniously on a single left–right dimension that captures attitudes toward social change versus traditionalism and egalitarianism versus hierarchy.

Research in Social Psychology

Research at the intersection of psychology and other social sciences has adopted the value-neutral definition of ideology but reframed it as an attribute of individuals rather than collectivities. Thus, ideology is treated as a complex belief system that is highly integrated (i.e., logically or psychologically consistent) within the mind of an individual. Two research questions have guided much empirical work over the past 50 years. First, does ideology exist? And second, are there psychological differences that accompany ideological differences?

P. E. Converse's 1964 analysis of public opinion data concluded that the general public is not very “ideological” in the sense of being constrained by scholarly definitions of terms such as liberalism and conservatism. Nevertheless, most people are able to reliably locate themselves on ideological dimensions, and doing so seems to have at least symbolic meaning for them. It is also clear that ideological belief systems are internally coherent in people who are highly educated, politically involved, or both, as noted in 1981 by Charles Judd, Jon Krosnick, and Michael Milburn.

In one of the earliest attempts to link personality and ideology, Theodor Adorno, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, Daniel Levinson, and R. Nevitt Sanford found in 1950 that a rigid, closed-minded, and “authoritarian” personality style characterized people who are drawn to rightwing ideologies. Although this work was harshly criticized, many of its claims have been vindicated. The weight of evidence indicates that right-wing conservatives are, on average, lower in open-mindedness and cognitive complexity and higher in mental rigidity and personal needs for order, structure, and closure, in [Page 457]comparison with moderates and liberals, as noted in 2003 by John T. Jost, Jack Glaser, Arie W. Kruglanski, and Frank J. Sulloway.

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