Downward Social Comparison

Definition

Social comparison involves thinking about one or more other people in relation to the self. Downward social comparison involves making comparisons with others who are inferior to, or less fortunate than, oneself in some way.

History and Background

Leon Festinger's theory of social comparison proposed that because people seek accurate self-evaluations, they compare themselves with other people who are similar to themselves. People also make upward social comparisons with others who are superior, in hopes of learning how to improve. Early researchers discovered, however, that people are not always unbiased selfevaluators. Sometimes people wish to self-enhance—to feel better about themselves—which may lead them to compare downward. In a highly influential article [Page 264]in 1981, Thomas Wills proposed that when individuals are low in subjective well-being, they often make downward social comparisons in an attempt to feel better. They may make downward social comparisons in several ways, including active derogation or simply passively taking advantage of opportunities to compare with people who are worse off. Wills also proposed that downward comparisons are made especially frequently by people who are depressed or low in self-esteem, because of their greater need for self-enhancement. To support his thesis, Wills reviewed an abundance of evidence on topics ranging from aggression and social prejudice to humor.

Wills's article inspired considerable research on downward social comparisons. Indeed, his article may be credited with rekindling social psychology's interest in social comparison more generally.

Research on the Selection and Effects of Downward Social Comparisons

Much of that research has been consistent with Wills's original propositions. Laboratory experiments have shown that people who are threatened in some way make downward social comparisons—or at least, fewer upward social comparisons. For example, in one study, participants who had failed a test of social sensitivity were more likely than those who had succeeded to choose to look at the scores of others when they expected those scores to be worse than their own.

Field studies have found similar evidence. For instance, in an interview study of breast cancer patients, the vast majority spontaneously brought up ways in which they were superior to, or more advantaged than, other people with cancer. They were much less likely to describe upward social comparisons. Other populations that have been shown to engage in downward social comparison include mentally disabled adolescents, victims of fire, arthritis patients, and mothers of premature infants.

Considerable research also has examined the effects of downward social comparisons. They have been shown to increase positive affect, decrease negative affect, heighten optimism about the future, increase relationship satisfaction, and enhance self-esteem. These benefits seem to be especially pronounced for people who are low in self-esteem and who are strongly disposed to make social comparisons.

Challenges to Downward Social Comparison Theory

As is true of any theory that has inspired considerable research, evidence has emerged that challenges Wills's theory or that at least identifies qualifications to it. First, it has become clear that upward social comparisons can benefit people under threat. Although traditionally it has been assumed that comparisons with superior others make people feel worse, upward social comparisons can be self-enhancing and motivating. For example, ex-smokers may seek contact with successful ex-smokers to learn about their strategies or to be inspired by their examples. People under threat also may avoid social comparisons altogether. Cancer patients sometimes schedule their oncologist appointments first thing in the morning to avoid seeing others whose conditions are worse.

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