Civil Rights

An Enduring Problem

The acquisition of civil rights for all groups remains inextricably linked to issues of inequality, discrimination, and social justice still plaguing the United States. The denial of civil rights led to mass protest in the country, particularly in the second half of the 20th century. Much of that protest centered on problems of voting and political representation. Protest groups saw political representation and voting as keys to accessing educational opportunity and employment and as a means for confronting discrimination in housing and real estate practices, police brutality, and bias in the judicial system.

Despite substantial progress in the expansion of civil rights to previously disenfranchised groups and dismantling de jure forms of segregation, patterns of social inequality remain. According to recent census data, minorities continue to lag significantly behind the majority group in educational attainment, wealth, occupational prestige, income, and quality of life as indicated by health and longevity. These patterns of inequality remain after controlling for similar educational and occupational standing. Despite increasing political integration, gaps remain. This is especially the case for African Americans, Latinos/as, and Native Americans. These groups are disproportionately impoverished, incarcerated, and underrepresented [Page 127]among political and economic leaders. Despite being citizens, the “first” Americans—members of the American Indian nations—suffer the worst poverty and the greatest marginalization.

Also, jobs in the United States are gendered. Gender segregation in occupations lead to women being relegated to jobs that do not ensure their future economic vitality and are characterized by lower wages. This pattern persists in each racial group. Women also suffer from media treatment that sexual-izes and diminishes them. Substantive change in the striking gender imbalance that characterizes economic, political, and cultural institutions has been slow. It is not surprising, then, that sharp gender differences continue in income, wealth, and poverty, as well as in political representation. However, scholars vary significantly, as do the public and policymakers, in how they interpret these figures.

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