Turkmenistan

History of Nomads and Tribes

The population has become settled only as recently as the 20th century. Before that time, there was a split between nomads and settled people. The Soviets attempted to weaken tribal consciousness and replace it with national identity, but tribal identity remained strong, with Turkmen collective farms often being structured to match clan and tribal association. Turkmen are well aware of their tribal affiliation, with the only exceptions being urbanized young people.

Turkmen became the official language in 1990, and nonspeakers were fired from employment. In all areas of life, the idea arose that only true ethnic Turkmen speakers were full members of the nation. Even so, access to power depended more on urban versus rural residence than it did on ethnic or language distinctions.

The first post-Soviet government of Turkmenistan was under the Democratic Party of Turkmenistan, which had 52,000 members, 48,000 of whom were former Communists. The Turkmenistan party lost support, but even after the civil war of 1992–93, remained the country's largest political party. But parties and politics are not necessarily the decisive networks. Central Asians, including Turkmen, are tribal, with strong networks based on geography and family. Tribe and clan often determine who gets appointments and who holds power. They also contribute to political rivalries.

Since independence, interest in Islam has resurfaced, as have traditional beliefs and customs. As the standard of living declined after the Soviets, rural life gained appeal because it provided a more consistent level of support, unlike the cities, where wide disparities were common. Even so, most continue to rely on the state for their incomes, and state jobs still retain the low pay differential established by the Soviets. Jobs in construction, transportation, and industry pay better than those in education, health, and services.

Politics and Nongovernmental Organizations

Under President Saaparmurat Nyyazowg (1991–2006), groups of all sorts were barred from registration by the bureaucratic tangle and the requirements for bribes for any significant action. With the easing of the laws, the most notable nongovernment organization (NGO) is Keik Okara, established in 1998 to provide legal and psychological counseling as well as offer classes in English, French, and community building. Founding members included social workers, medical personnel, and educators. It officially became an NGO in 2004, a year after the law authorizing them. It also deals with women's health and legal issues such as asylum.

The Center for Innovative Teaching is not an official NGO but began in the 1990s as a group of educators who cooperated in the 1990s to offer advice to parents. Originally it worked within the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). With the end of that program in 2007, a group of teachers, lawyers, and counselors cooperated to create the new center, which now supports education, particularly in the early years. Kindergarten is rare in Turkmenistan, with 20 percent of those eligible attending. The center sometimes runs into conflicts with traditional family values, such as children questioning elders, which is considered rude, but it maintains the traditional requirement that students retain unquestioning obedience and respect at home.

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