South Africa

Colonial, Apartheid, and Postapartheid Era

Starting with the Dutch, Europeans arrived in South Africa in 1652. Other European settlers included Germans, French, and British. Many of the non-British settlers merged and became the Afrikaner ethnic group. With European settlers came oppression of indigenous groups. The Zulus, a Bantu community, formed one state under Shaka in 1816. As one state, the Zulus became the largest indigenous group, which remains true today. Indians were another ethnic group introduced into South Africa. They came initially as indentured servants to work on British sugar plantations.

The subjugation of black groups increased when gold and diamonds were discovered. Legislation forced blacks to move to metropolitan areas to work in mines. These migrant networks increased fragmentation and shifted traditional social networks. Other acts such as the removal of entire communities to other lands and refusing land ownership also had an effect.

Apartheid means “separateness” in Afrikaans. Apartheid became official policy in 1948 when instituted by the Afrikaner National Party. The African National Congress (ANC), which began in 1912 and was led by the black middle class, officially formed against European oppression. This network transcended ethnic boundaries among blacks and became a militant liberation organization in 1949. Other networks, developed through organizations like the Congress of Democrats (white), South African Indian Congress, and the Industrial and Commercial Workers Union, joined the struggle.

In 1959, some ANC leadership, including Govan Mbeki, Oliver Tambo, and Nelson Mandela, split to form the Pan-African Congress (PAC) over ideological differences. The ban of the ANC, PAC, and similar organizations forced a shift, and these networks began to operate covertly. Some extended into other African countries and internationally. The international networks gained support, finance, exposure, and clout. An educated, elite exile network, which included Thabo Mbeki, emerged. In the 1960s, the ANC added a military wing, which included Jacob Zuma. It aligned with other liberation organizations, such as ZANU-PF of Zimbabwe, and gained support from Russia.

Religious networks were also active in the apartheid struggle. The Dutch Reformed Church supported apartheid, but black, Roman Catholic, and Anglican churches opposed apartheid at varying levels. The South African Council of Churches (SACC) became an umbrella organization for activism against apartheid under the leadership of Bishop Desmond Tutu.

The ANC transformed into a political party, becoming the ruling party in 1994. The ANC leadership included those who had fought in the struggle, whether black, white, or Indian. After Nelson Mandela's presidency, the ANC polarized around two camps with Thabo Mbeki representing the “elitist” and Jacob Zuma representing the more “leftist” or “populist” members. The Zuma camp traditionally aligns with ANC's tripartite partners, Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) and the South African Communist Party (SACP).

When the Zuma camp rose to prominence in 2008, they removed Mbeki as president. Some Mbeki loyalists formed another political party, Congress of the People (COPE). In the 2009 elections, the ANC maintained its prominence, receiving over 65 percent of the vote. However, the Democratic Alliance (DA) won the Western Cape Province. Because of its prominence, the ANC also influences the economic and social contexts today. Many ANC current and former leaders like Tokyo Sexwale, Patrice Motsepe, and Cyril Ramaphosa are wealthy business and social leaders. Communities, or kingdoms like Bafokeng and Zulu, may still operate under traditional [Page 804]law with their own leadership. The House of Traditional Leaders was also formed as a national body to advise government. South Africa calls itself “The Rainbow Nation” because of its ethnic diversity and seeks to preserve this heritage. It recognizes 11 official languages. But while South African social networks are more integrated along racial and ethnic lines, divisions remain. Racist and cultural attacks, class warfare, violent crimes, and robberies illustrate a mix of ethnic and class-based tensions, exacerbated by economic conditions.

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