Kazakhstan

The development of social networks in Kazakhstan has been closely linked to the country's turbulent history and reflects its diversity in ethnic and religious composition. The Russian domination, which began in the 19th century, progressively altered the traditional Kazakh networks of the family and the tribe. Because of the massive influx of Russian colonizers, Kazakh social networks became increasingly based on ethnic and religious allegiances. In the aftermath of the Cold War, Kazakhstan struggled to find its own distinct identity, and the country is still ruled by a totalitarian regime that offers citizens political patronage in exchange for consensus.

Once part of the former Soviet Union, Kazakhstan became independent in 1991 following the collapse of communism and the end of the Cold War. Situated in central Asia, Kazakhstan is the ninth-largest country in the world and has a population of about 15.5 million. Muslims comprise the main religious group with almost 65 percent of the population, while one-third of Kazakhs are Russian Orthodox. Other Christian groups are Protestants and Roman Catholics. Religious affiliation is an important form of membership in modern-day Kazakhstan and mostly follows ethnic lines: ethnic Kazakhs and Uzbeks tend to be Sunni Muslims and are affiliated in the Spiritual Association of Muslims of Kazakhstan.

In spite of the recent economic growth due to the rapidly increasing oil industry and gas sector, inequality still pervades Kazakh society, and informal social networks remain crucial to get jobs. Officially a presidential republic, Kazakhstan displays several features of a totalitarian state, and President Nursultan Nazarbayev and his family members have been granted immunity from criminal prosecution. The country's constitution has also been amended to allow Nazarbayev to be president for life. [Page 462]The only recognized official political networks are those loyal to the president and, as in the case of the Asar Party, sometimes have even been founded by his close relatives. Considering that in the 2007 general election none of the political parties in opposition succeeded in gaining parliamentary seats and that the governmental coalition obtained 88 percent of the vote, there seems to be little possibility of political affiliation for Kazakhs outside of the governing parties.

At town meetings, Kazakhstanis learn to develop local projects to improve their communities.