China

Confucianism

Social networks in China have a long history and can be traced back to ancient times and traditional Chinese philosophy. Confucianism is the oldest and most influential Chinese philosophical system, espoused by the teachings of Confucius (Kong Fuzi, 551–479 B.C.E.) and his disciples. Social networks in China today, in [Page 124]spite of modern ways of living and social change, continue to resemble traditional Confucian features, particularly the continuing emphasis on families as the basic social unit.

Confucianism's five virtues underpin social relations and networks in society. In particular, the virtue Xiao (filial piety) plays a key role in family relations and signifies a set of relationships and duties based on love and respect. The younger generation is expected to obey and respect elders in material, emotional, and spiritual terms and, accordingly, receive parental affection, guidance, and support. Filial piety takes place via five key relationships in which each individual has obligations: sovereign to subject, parent to child, husband and wife, elder to younger sibling, and friend to friend. In contrast to the Western concept of individualism, which emphasizes the dignity and empowerment of the individual, Chinese culture regards the family as a close-knit, harmonious, social unit that underpins the organization of society. The continuing emphasis on the family as the basic unit of society is a dominant feature of social networks in China, despite efforts by the government (Chinese Communist Party) to replace family loyalty with loyalty to the state.

The virtue Yi (integrity or righteousness) extends filial piety to others in society. It consists of Zhong (loyalty), which symbolizes ties and obligations to the extended family and close friends; and Shu, a moral consideration for others that emphasizes relationships and duties in relation to social status. For example, juniors owe strong duties of reverence and service to seniors, whereas seniors have a duty to express compassion and concern toward subordinates. Li (ritual) refers to everyday propriety, including good manners, politeness, correctness, wisdom, etc., which are important for an ordered society based on etiquette and social roles. Linked to this is Ren (humanity), which means compassion and sympathy for others, forming a foundation for human relationships grounded in personal, family, and community harmony.

Confucianism is concerned with good governance and social relationships, designed to engender a harmonious society. Since the Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.–220 C.E.), it has remained as a mainstream doctrine, although there have been changes in China's social networks in response to modernization and other social change. Changing patterns of filial piety, for example, include reduced adherence to filial commitments; an erosion of the traditional, collectivistic family orientation; and increasing independence and individualism among youngsters.

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