Time on Task

Time on task (also referred to as engaged learning time) refers to the amount of time a learner is actively engaged in the task at hand. According to Savage (1991), it is the time students actually spend thinking about, acting on, or working with classroom assignments and tasks. Borich and Tombari (1997) reported that high time on task contributes to academic achievement. It has been suggested that time on task is more important to such achievement than the length of the school day or year.

Despite the importance of high time on task, it is potentially harmful to emphasize these behaviors to the exclusion of all other considerations. Some important classroom tasks, which require creativity and uncertainty, produce lower levels of on-task behavior than do simple clerical type tasks. Obviously, it would be counterproductive to exclude such activities from the curriculum.

Low time on task has been suggested by Barkley (1990) to be one of the most consistent school behavior problems displayed by children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. However, it is important to acknowledge that low time on task is associated with a number of other classroom challenges. For example, Brock (1998a) reports that developmental immaturity, learning disabilities, intellectual precocity, environmental stress, poor achievement motivation, and psychopathology are all potential causes of off-task behavior.

Behavioral assessment (or classroom observation) of time on task typically employs interval behaviorrecording techniques. Whole-interval and momentary time sampling techniques are most appropriate for assessing on-task and in-seat classroom behaviors. Whole-interval procedures involve dividing the observational period into equal time intervals (e.g., 15 seconds) and then counting the intervals during which on-task behavior was displayed throughout. Momentary procedures also involve dividing the observational period into equal time intervals. However, on-task behavior is counted only if it is displayed at the moment each interval ends. Brock (1998a) recommends that when observing on-task behavior it is best to do so during a time when it is clear whether or not the student is on task (e.g., during an independent seat work writing activity).

A prerequisite to improving a classroom's on-task behavior is the establishment of a consistent classroom routine. Such a routine can help to ensure that the time allocated for instruction is maximized. This, in turn, increases the opportunity for students to be engaged in learning tasks. Additional strategies for maximizing on-task behavior suggested Brock (1998b) include:

• Presentation of engaging lessons that involve active (as opposed to passive) participation and use novel, interesting, highly motivating materials
• Use of external visual and auditory cues (e.g., posted classroom rules and verbal reminders) that prompt on-task behavior and clearly signal transitions from one activity to the next
• Self-monitoring strategies that require students to monitor and record their on-task behavior
• Contingency management strategies, which make the provision of reward or reinforcement contingent upon on-task behaviors
• Peer tutoring
• Ensuring that children are held accountable for their work by promptly checking the product of their efforts
• Group alerting or questioning strategies that result in students believing that everyone in a classroom has an equal probability of being called on by the teacher
• Physical proximity to

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