Theories of Human Development

The Maturational and Biological Models

Arnold Gesell, the foremost maturationalist in developmental psychology, represents a unique approach to the study of human development. As a physician, [Page 563]Gesell believed that the sequence of development is determined by the biological and evolutionary history of the species. In other words, development of the organism is essentially under the control of biological systems and the process of maturation. Although the environment is of some importance, it acts only in a supportive role and does not provide any impetus for change.

While working with G. Stanley Hall within the tradition of the Darwinian influence that was very popular during the 1920s, Gesell applied the tenets of recapitulation theory to the study of individual development, or ontogenesis. Recapitulation theory states that the development of the species is reflected in the development of the individual. In other words, the child progresses through a series of stages that recount the developmental sequence that characterized the species.

Gesell believed that the most important influences on the growth and development of the human organism were biological directives. He summarized this theory in five distinct principles of development, which he later applied to behavior. All these principles assume that the formation of structures is necessary before any event outside the organism can have an influence on development. Interestingly, the notion that “function follows structure” was pursued not only by Gesell, but, later on, designers, architects, and engineers also found a great deal of truth in this idea.

Gesell also believed that behavior at different stages of development has different degrees of balance or stability. For example, at two years of age, the child's behavior might be characterized by a groping for some type of stability (the so-called “terrible twos”). Shortly thereafter, however, the child's behavior becomes smooth and consolidated. Gesell believed that development is cyclical in nature, swinging from one extreme to another, and that by means of these swings, the child develops and uses new structures.

Because he placed such a strong emphasis on the importance of biological processes, the majority of Gesell's work and that of his colleagues focused on biological systems as a beginning point to understanding development. Through Gesell's use of cinematic (moving picture) records, stop-action analysis provided the foundation for his extensive descriptions of “normal” development. This technique allowed Gesell to examine the frame-by-frame progression of certain motor tasks from their earliest reflex stage at birth through a system of fully developed and integrated behaviors. For example, his detailed analysis of walking provided the first graphic record of the sequence this complex behavior follows.

Gesell also made significant contributions with the development of the co-twin method for comparing the relative effects of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) on development. One identical twin would receive specific training in some skill (such as stair climbing), and the other twin would receive no training in the skill. The rationale for this strategy was that because the children had an identical genetic makeup, any difference in stair-climbing ability must be the result of training. This is the basic paradigm that Gesell used to question some very interesting and controversial statements about the nature of intelligence.

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