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Self-Management
Self-management refers to actions individuals take to independently change or maintain their own behavior. This is in contrast to strategies and interventions directed by others, such as teachers and parents, to change an individual's behavior. Terms regularly seen in the literature related to self-management include self-regulation, self-control, and self-determination. Theoretically, self-management strategies have been described from both behavioral and cognitive viewpoints. The differences lie primarily in the focus of the intervention with a large amount of overlap in actual procedures. Specifically, behavioral self-management strategies emphasize what the individual does after the target behavior occurs (e.g., recording whether or not a task was completed); whereas cognitive self-management strategies emphasize what the individual says, thinks, or does before engaging in the target behavior (e.g., saying the steps needed to solve a problem out loud before attempting the problem). Although there are differences in terminology and explanation for efficacy, cognitive and behavioral approaches to self-management share relatively the same objectives. Students are taught to monitor and evaluate their own behavior and make adjustments when needed. The ultimate goal is for students to perform the necessary steps of a desired behavior without the need for supervision from others.
Although there are many different types of self-management procedures, those described most frequently in the school psychology self-management literature are self-monitoring, self-evaluation, selfreinforcement, self-instruction, and social problem solving. Self-management programs typically are comprised of one or some combination of these strategies (Shapiro & Cole, 1994).
Self-Monitoring
Self-monitoring requires individuals to pay attention to a specific aspect of their behavior, and then indicate whether or not the behavior being monitored has occurred (i.e., “Did I do it?”). For example, a student who frequently talks out in the classroom during independent seat work might be asked to selfmonitor hand-raising behavior, and record when this occurs. Checklists are commonly used when selfmonitoring. On a homework checklist, a student may check off the following steps when completing an assignment:
- Do I have the necessary supplies?
- Did I read the directions?
- Did I complete the assignment?
- Did I turn it in on time?
Both audio and visual cues can be used to prompt students to self-monitor. For example, picture prompts may be provided depicting targeted behaviors, or a tone may be emitted from a tape recorder. These signal students to record whether they were engaging in the specified behavior at predetermined intervals.
Self-monitoring has resulted in behavior change in the absence of other interventions. Thus, simply paying attention and recording specified behaviors may result in desired behavior change.
Self-Evaluation
Self-evaluation requires individuals to evaluate the quality of their own behavior against a predetermined criterion for a given behavior (i.e., “How well did I do?”). Self-evaluation typically is used in conjunction with self-monitoring as part of a self-management program. Students may evaluate their behavioral or academic performance using a rating scale (e.g., 5 being excellent and 1 being unacceptable). Students often need training on how to accurately and consistently evaluate their own behavior. This can be done using a matching system wherein a teacher, peer, or parent rates the behavior and the target student attempts to match their rating. Matching may be faded as the student learns to rate his or her own behaviors accurately and consistently. Backup reinforcers have been used in some interventions when student ratings match teacher ratings.
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- Assessment
- Academic Achievement
- Adaptive Behavior Assessment
- Applied Behavior Analysis
- Authentic Assessment
- Behavioral Assessment
- Bias (Testing)
- Buros Mental Measurements Yearbook
- Career Assessment
- Classroom Observation
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- Projective Testing
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- School-Related Terms
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- Statistical and Measurement Terms
- Student Problematic Behavior
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