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Homework
Cooper (1989) defines homework as “tasks assigned to students by school teachers that are meant to be carried out during nonschool hours”(p. 7). Homework accounts for 20% of the time students spend on academic tasks (Cooper & Nye, 1994; Polloway & colleagues, 1992). Frequency of homework increases across school grades. In high school, a student with four to five teachers may have two to three hours of homework per night. According to proponents of extensive homework assignments, the main reason for homework is that it increases total study time; however, other purposes for homework cited by professional educators include:
- Practice
- Review and enrichment
- Makeup work
- Preparation for future work
- Test preparation
- Communication with parents
Time spent on homework, percentage of tasks solved, and effort put into homework constitutes important facets of homework behavior. In some ways, homework involves the complex interaction of more influences than any other instructional device. For example, factors that affect the nature, quality, and effectiveness of homework include student characteristics, parent involvement and home support (time, space, quiet, materials), characteristics of the assignment (amount, purpose, links to the curriculum, skills needed, student choice and individualization), and feedback and correction provided on the homework product (Cooper, 1989).
Homework Effects on Achievement
Given the popular belief that homework has positive effects on students, the research is somewhat contradictory about the specific effects of homework on academic achievement and school performance (Cooper & colleagues, 1998). Such contradictions are likely, in part, because of lack of standard metrics for “homework” (time, amount, design) and student achievement (standardized tests or grades, or both). Larger-scale analyses generally support the relationship between homework and positive student achievement. Cooper (1989) analyzed 17 studies focused on homework assignments and found that in classes where homework was assigned, the academic achievement was higher than in classes where no homework was assigned. However, the effect varied dramatically with grade level. For elementary school students, the effect of homework on achievement was negligible, while junior high students benefited more. For high school students, homework had substantial positive effects. Using a large national database, Keith and colleagues (1993) also found a significant relationship between time spent on homework and standardized achievement scores.
Beyond the assignment of homework and the parallel concepts of amount of homework and time spent on homework, determining the effectiveness of homework as a strategy is a complex task. The impact of homework on academic achievement is mediated by factors such as appropriateness of the design of homework, student learning abilities, student attitudes, and parent and peer support.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Homework
Aside from the question of the basic effectiveness of homework as a learning strategy, there are both positive and negative potential outcomes or side effects of homework (Cooper & colleagues, 1998). On the positive side, homework is believed to improve learning and achievement through better retention of factual knowledge, increased understanding, and improvements in critical thinking. Homework is also thought to reinforce self-discipline, organizational strategies, and study habits and skills. Homework is sometimes used as a way to get parents involved in their children's schooling. Finally, the longer-term benefits may be a general orientation toward inquisitiveness and positive attitudes toward learning.
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