Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups such that students work together to maximize their own and each other's learning. In cooperative learning situations, there is a positive interdependence among students' goal attainments; students perceive that they can reach their learning goals if and only if the other students in the learning group also reach their goals (Deutsch, 1962; Johnson & Johnson, 1989). Cooperative learning is usually contrasted with competitive learning (students working to achieve goals that only a few can attain; students can succeed if and only if other students in the class fail to obtain their goals) and individualistic learning (students working alone on goals independent from the goals of others).

[Page 118]There are three types of cooperative learning (Johnson & colleagues, 1998a, 1998b; Johnson & Johnson, 1999): formal cooperative learning, informal cooperative learning, and cooperative base groups. Formal cooperative learning involves students working together, for one class period to several weeks, to achieve shared learning goals and complete jointly specific tasks and assignments such as decision-making or problem-solving tasks, writing a report, conducting a survey or experiment, reading a chapter or reference book. Any course requirement or assignment may be reformulated to be cooperative. In formal cooperative learning groups teachers make a number of preinstructional decisions (teachers have to decide on the objectives of the lesson, size of groups, the method of assigning students to groups, the roles students will be assigned, the materials needed to conduct the lesson, and the way the room will be arranged). Teachers then have to explain the task and the cooperative structure to the class. Teachers explain the academic task, teach the required concepts and strategies, specify the positive goal interdependence and individual accountability, give the criteria for success, and explain the expected social skills to be engaged in. Teachers monitor students' learning and, when it is needed, intervene in the groups to provide assistance. Finally, teachers assess the quality of students' learning and help students process how well their groups functioned and members worked together.

Informal cooperative learning consists of having students work together to achieve a joint learning goal in temporary, ad-hoc groups that last from a few minutes to one class period (Johnson & colleagues, 1998b; Johnson & Johnson, 1999). During direct teaching (a lecture, demonstration, or film) informal cooperative learning groups may be used to have students engage in 3-to-5-minute focused discussions before and after the direct teaching, and 2-to-3-minute turn-to-your-partner discussions interspersed every 15 minutes or so throughout the direct teaching.

Cooperative base groups are long-term, heterogeneous cooperative learning groups with stable membership (Johnson & colleagues, 1998b; Johnson & Johnson, 1999). The purposes of the base group are to give the support, help, encouragement, and assistance each member needs to make academic progress (attend class, complete all assignments, learn) and to develop cognitively and socially in healthy ways.