Paradigm

Originally, paradigm was a word referring to an accepted model or pattern. In The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Thomas Kuhn gave this word a new meaning, using it to represent the set of practices that constitutes the core of a scientific discipline and serves as a model to show how a scientific community should conduct its research.

In Structure, Kuhn defined a paradigm simply as a group of exemplary problem solutions universally accepted by the members of a scientific community. According to Kuhn, what constitute a paradigm are not abstract theories, but concrete applications of the theories for solutions of typical problems. For example, the paradigm of Newtonian mechanics does not consist of Newton's equations of motion, but exemplary applications of these equations in solving such standard problems as free fall, simple pendulum, and inclined planes. By forming analogies to these exemplary problem solutions, scientists conduct their research in a coherent way and establish a consensual core for the discipline. Initially, Kuhn did not think that paradigms exist in social sciences, because social scientists usually belong to competing schools and they are unable to reach universal consensus on what a common practice should be in their field.

Kuhn's notion of paradigm evolved after the publication of Structure. One development was that Kuhn gradually turned “paradigm” into a more inclusive concept. In the postscript of Structure, Kuhn introduced the notion of “disciplinary matrix” to replace the paradigm concept in the broad sense. The term matrix suggests that it is composed of various elements. In addition to [Page 994]exemplary problem solutions, a disciplinary matrix also includes the following three components:

• 1.
  Symbolic generalizations. These are formal or formalizable expressions used by a scientific community as universal laws or equations, such as the symbolic form f = ma defined by the second principle of Newtonian mechanics.
• 2.
  Models. These include heuristic analogies that help scientists to analyze and understand certain phenomena, such as using a hydrodynamic system as an analogy of an electric circuit. These also include metaphysical analogies used to justify certain ontological assumptions, such as using a group of tiny elastic billiard balls in random motion to illustrate the nature of gas.
• 3.
  Values. These are convictions shared by a scientific community, such as the belief in the significance of accuracy or simplicity.

Another development was that Kuhn eventually abandoned universal acceptance as the requirement for paradigms. Kuhn realized that scientific schools competing with each other may also have their own internal consensuses, and he agreed to label the consensus of a school a paradigm. After this revision, the concept of paradigm becomes applicable in social sciences.