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Order Effects
In presenting information to individuals or groups, or in assessing how individuals or groups feel or think about an issue, researchers face the possibility that the order of materials might have a significant influence on the behavior, decisions, or evaluations of interest. A number of research streams have developed over the years to address these issues, known as order effects, as they are of interest for both practical (e.g., the desire to reduce bias in responses) and theoretical reasons (e.g., testing theoretical notions about the stability or strength of attitudes).
In persuasion research, message and argument order effects refer to changes in the influence of messages and arguments on attitude when the order of messages or argument presentation is varied. In survey research, two types of order effects are often observed: question order effects and response order effects. A question order effect refers to cases where exposure to or answering an earlier question affects the response to a later question. A response order effect refers to cases where the probability of an option being chosen changes depending on where it is placed in the list of options.
Message and Argument Order Effects in Persuasion Research
In the classic message order effect research by Carl Iver Hovland and his colleagues, primacy effects were said to be observed when the first of two opposing messages carried the greatest weight in some final judgment. Recency effects were said to be observed when the second of two opposing messages carried the greatest weight in a final judgment. In another line of research, Hovland and colleagues examined the persuasive influence of the order of information in a single persuasive message.
Most recent findings and reviews of the literature suggest that the motivation level with which an individual processes a first message is an important consideration. In general, primacy effects are more likely to be observed when a first message is processed under high levels of motivation and elaboration (i.e., when the person forms a strong attitude when exposed to the first message). Recency effects are more likely when the first message is not processed extensively. Specific task instructions can reduce the likelihood of primacy effects (e.g., considering the information in chunks rather than piecemeal).
The line of research regarding argument order effects within a single message, along with the message order effect research, has focused on the persuasive outcome of exposure to materials. General results show that arguments presented first tend to have greater impact, especially when the list of arguments is presented verbally. More recent research suggests that individuals hold expectations about the order in which arguments are presented. Arguments are more effective when they are presented at positions where most important arguments are expected.
Question and Response Order Effects in Survey Research
Surveys are conducted to obtain measures of attitude, behavior, and/or memories of past behaviors that are as accurate representations of reality as possible. Two types of order effects are often encountered in survey research. One type is observed when answers vary when question order is changed, and the other type is observed when the order of response alternatives leads to different choices by respondents. Both question order effects and response order effects challenge the validity of survey data and generate intense interest in systematic research into the underlying causes of such effects.
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