Reciprocity

Reciprocity concerns balanced patterns of giving and taking between people. Research relationships are not necessarily reciprocal, but good research ethics practice requires that researchers consider what they take from research participants as well as what they give to them. There are several dimensions to this issue, including the different conceptualizations of what is given and taken, the rights and responsibilities of each party in research relationships, and the practicalities of building rapport.

Inviting people to participate in research always involves asking them to give up their time, and this may vary from a short one-off period (e.g., to be interviewed) to a substantial longer-term commitment (e.g., to participate in a longitudinal study). In addition to their time, people are being asked to share some aspects of themselves and their lives, such as their knowledge, views, and experiences. The research “bargain” is not only that honest and undistorted access to these often private realms is granted to the researcher but also that the data collected about them may be put in the public domain in some form of publication.

In turn, researchers are expected to include an assurance that the material collected will be treated ethically (e.g., through a commitment to treat the material as confidential and to anonymize participants when publishing findings). Researchers may also give something to participants through the opportunity to reflect on their lives and by providing a voice in the [Page 740]wider public domain. There is, however, potential for misunderstanding and disagreement about the extent to which that voice should be reported uncritically; researchers rarely give participants a veto over how they are represented in research reports, although giving them the opportunity to comment on draft reports is more common.

Researchers may seek to compensate participants in further ways. Payments to participants may be presented as recompense for their time and trouble, although setting the levels for such payments is problematic. Concerns also exist about the impact on research if participants' motivation is financial. The idea of give and take can lead researchers to respond to participants' revelations by revealing similar aspects of their own lives. This may be done for practical reasons as well as for ethical reasons; for example, research inquiry may take the form of conversations in which the norm is for both parties to contribute equally, thereby building rapport.

Concern about the potentially exploitative nature of research relationships has prompted extensive consideration of what participants get from involvement in research. The opportunity to be listened to and given a voice is generally a more important motivation than the prospect of direct material benefit. Furthermore, the desire to contribute to the research process may be altruistic; therefore, the absence of reciprocity is not necessarily a problem provided that participants are given due consideration and respect at all stages of the research process.