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Observational Research

Observation is one of the oldest and most fundamental research method approaches. It involves collecting impressions of the world using all of one's senses, especially looking and listening, in a systematic and purposeful way to learn about a phenomenon of interest. Although frequently employed on its own, observational research is often used with other methods such as interviewing and document analysis. Both quantitative and qualitative researchers, and those working somewhere along the continuum between these two approaches, use observation. More quantitative observation is often referred to as systematic or structured observation and more qualitative approaches include naturalistic observation, nonstructured observation, and participant observation. This entry focuses on qualitative observational research. It begins by relating some of the characteristics of qualitative observation, goes on to describe the method or doing of observation, explores the issues of the role of the observer and ethical concerns, and closes with overviews of the strengths and weaknesses of this methodological approach.

Characteristics of Qualitative Observational Research

Qualitative observational research attempts to capture life as experienced by the research participants rather than through categories that have been predetermined by the researcher. Observational research assumes behavior is purposeful, reflecting deeper values and beliefs. Although it may be conducted in a laboratory or another setting chosen by the researcher, it more typically takes place in natural settings to capture behavior as it occurs in the real world. It usually involves direct contact between the researcher and participants though indirect data collection methods such as audio- or video-recording may also be used. Qualitative observational research is exploratory. It seeks to uncover unanticipated phenomena. It uses inductive reasoning with the conceptual constructs used to account for observations being developed during and after data collection from the observed behavior itself. Qualitative observational research uses idiographic rather than nomothetic causal explanation. It is constructivist in approach, emphasizing meanings that the participants attach to activities and events. Qualitative observational research recognizes the subjective role of the researcher. It acknowledges reactivity to be inevitable on the part of both the observed and the observer and seeks to address and understand this through researcher reflexivity.

Qualitative observational research is associated with a number of theoretical traditions and broad research methodologies including ethnomethodology, grounded theory, dramaturgy, institutional ethnography, and participatory action research.

Methods: Doing Observational Research

The Research Process

Observational research, like any research, begins with the selection of a research problem. This problem is often presented as an area of research interest, with more specific research questions being articulated after more is learned through observation in the field. Although some researchers prefer to enter the field and begin observation immediately without the potential blinders of preconceived notions, many conduct a literature search to identify relevant indicators and explanatory concepts that may inform the project. Researchers gather both descriptive and relational data through observing behavior in the setting of interest. Findings are articulated, often with an explanatory model or one or more explanatory theoretical constructs, in reports of the research.

Qualitative observation is characterized by an emergent research design. This designs involves a cyclical process, moving back and forth between inductive and deductive reasoning: Themes are identified through the analysis of observed behavior; these themes suggest areas for focusing subsequent observation; subsequent observations suggest new themes that then initiate more observations. Data collection continues until saturation, the point at which the observer learns nothing new from continued observation.

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