Discourse

Discourse, in the most general sense, is the study of language as it is used in society expressed either through conversations or in documents. However, the term discourse also carries with it various historical traditions influencing the definition employed and the type of research conducted. The major disciplines that have contributed to the development of these traditions include diverse fields such as psychology, sociology, philosophy, and linguistics.

The two major approaches to discourse analysis are influenced by either ethnomethodological or Foucauldian traditions. Regardless of the approach, discourse analysis can be distinguished from strict conversation analysis and other forms of linguistic analysis by its focus primarily on the meaning of talk (or text) rather than on the linguistic organization of the components of talk (e.g., grammar, sentence structure, word choice).

Ethnomethodological discourse analysis has its roots in the ethnomethodological approach of Harold Garfinkel that seeks to understand the implicit rules governing human conduct. An ethnomethodological approach to discourse assumes the same aim. Often referred to as non-Foucauldian discourse analysis, ethnomethodological discourse analysis is concerned primarily with the structures of interaction that produce meaning. Assumptions that underpin this approach include expectations that communication is structured, stable, contextual, organized, and sequential. Researchers aim to uncover the rules of language in a particular context to determine both the structure [Page 217]of conversation and the resultant meaning of what is said. An example research question could focus on how language is used by teenagers to create shared meanings about the social acceptability of alcohol, tobacco, and drug use.

Foucauldian discourse analysis shares a focus on the meaning of talk or text with ethnomethodol-ogical discourse analysis. In contrast, however, a Foucauldian approach to discourse, rather than exploring the rules that govern meaning-making, focuses on the power inherent in language and seeks to understand how historically and socially instituted sources of power construct the wider social world through language. For example, researchers employing a Foucauldian approach to discourse analysis would be more interested in how language is used by doctors, parents, the media, and governments to subordinate and marginalize the views of teenagers with respect to substance use. They would also be interested in the discourse of teenagers as a form of resistance to the hegemonic discourses of the cultural mainstream. As such, Foucauldian discourse analysis assumes a more critical approach and focuses on how power is operationalized through language.