Excellence Theory

Excellence theory is a term used to represent the theoretical knowledge and findings of a landmark study funded by the International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) Research Foundation. The Excellence study, headed by University of Maryland's James E. Grunig, resulted in the publication of three books: J. E. Grunig's Excellence in Public Relations and Communication Management (1992) (theory and literature review), Manager's Guide to Excellence in Public Relations and Communication Management (D. M. Dozier, L. A. Grunig, & J. E. Grunig, 1995) (practical implementation of the research findings), Excellent Public Relations and Effective Organizations: A Study of Communication Management in Three Countries (L. A. Grunig, J. E. Grunig, & D. M. Dozier, 2002) (findings and refinement of excellence theory), and numerous journal articles. Excellence theory explains how public relations can contribute as a management function to overall organizational effectiveness. Larissa A. Grunig, J. E. Grunig, and D. M. Dozier argued, “The major premise of the Excellence theory states that communication has value to an organization because it helps to build good long-term relationships with strategic publics” (2002, p. 57).

The Excellence study spanned over a decade, studied 327 organizations, and included both qualitative and quantitative study on an international level. IABC's $400,000 grant funded research on public relations in organizations of all types, including corporations, government agencies, nonprofits, and associations. The team of researchers sought to identify the key factors that make public relations “excellent” in its contribution to organizational effectiveness, in its role as a management function, and in the internal composition, structure, and function of the ideal public relations department. The organizations selected to participate in the Excellence study either had records as excellent communicators and served as best-case exemplars, or had poor communications, serving as examples of what can and does impede effective public relations. By integrating the literature across many diverse disciplines, the team developed theoretical propositions that it then tested with empirical data. Those propositions helped to form the Excellence theory and were refined into the principles (or factors) of excellence. These propositions comprised assertions about the normative structure of the public relations function, organizational structure, and external variables such as relationships with publics and stakeholders.

Factor analysis of the data (mathematically searching for data clustering around underlying connections among the variables) revealed what the researchers labeled the “Excellence factor.” The Excellence factor comprises several characteristics that span organization size and type, culture, and other influences, allowing them to be labeled “generic” principles of excellence. These characteristics are the backbone of the excellence theory, providing a normative yet practical guide for how public relations can make the maximal contribution to an organization. The Excellence factor was isolated into 10 principles of excellence, and then condensed into the following eight broad variables.

• 1.
  The value of communication, as seen by the CEO and top management of an organization, was found to be indicative of excellent public relations. CEOs were asked to rate the value of public relations in comparison with other departments. The CEOs who placed highervalue on public relations favored a communication [Page 307]function in their own companies with many of the attributes of excellence described here. CEOs who highly valued public relations were likely to have more effective public relations units. Senior public relations practition ers in these organizations were likely to participate in the overall strategic management of the organization.
• 2.
  Contribution to strategic organizational functions is an indicator of public relations excellence that is highly dependent on how highly the CEO values communication. The organization depends on effective relationships with publics for its survival, and public relations should incorporate the views of those publics into organizational planning. Active participation in strategic planning is necessary for public relations to contribute to organizational effectiveness, but access to the high-level process is difficult to attain. Public relations contributes frequently in the organization's response to social issues and routine operations. It contributes less frequently to strategic planning, except in organizations in which the CEO places high value on the public relations function.
• 3.
  Performing a management role is essential to public relations being included in strategic management. Public relations roles can be divided into the broad categories of technician (based on a skill set, such as newswriting) and manager (based on business management knowledge, such as research, planning, and advising). Senior public relations practitioners who perform primarily a management role rather than a technical role contribute to organizational effectiveness and excellence in the communication function.
• 4.
  A crucial component of excellence theory is the model of public relations preferred by an organization. Four models of public relations were developed: press agentry (publicity), public information (dissemination of accurate information), two-way asymmetrical communication (scientific persuasion), and two-way symmetrical communication (mutual understanding). Both two-way models are based on research; both one-way models describe a simple output of communication from the organization. Although both the two-way asymmetrical model and the two-way symmetrical model are effective and present in excellent organizations, the two-way symmetrical model is generally indicative of excellence because it provides a vehicle for dialogue with publics. The dialogue inherent in the symmetrical model results in long-term relationship building and maintenance. Moreover, including the views of publics in organizational decision making is believed to be inherently ethical and provides information that the organization can use in strategic planning. For these reasons the two-way symmetrical model is deemed the most excellent approach to conducting public relations.
• 5.
  The potential of the communication department to actually practice the ideal type of excellent public relations is another factor of excellence. Excellence theory holds that the two-way symmetrical model and the man agerial role must both be employed, and the potential of the top communicator to do so is based on his or her knowledge. The knowledge of research methods requiredto implement the two-way models poses a problem for some practitioners, limiting their potential for excel lence. Knowledge of managerial functions, such as budgeting, evaluating research, managing a staff, and planning goals and objectives, is also necessary for excellence. The Excellence study found that although knowledge of the management role and research function is about average, most departments do not have enough expertise in strategic management (segmentation and evaluation research, issues management functions). Knowledge of both research and strategic management must be present and used for public relations to contribute at the highest level.
• 6.
  Activist pressure on an organization forces it to communicate with external publics. The Excellence study used activist pressure to determine the impact of an organization's environment on public relations effectiveness. Organizations with higher levels of activism had higher levels of successful public relations. Often, activism is an agent of positive change or spurs the organization to be proactive in managing its issues rather than reactive. Activist pressure encourages public relations to tackle important issues of organizational policy, to proactively manage issues, and to contribute at higher levels of strategic planning in the organization.
• 7.
  Organizational culture, structure, and otheremployee-related variables were also found to be a factor of excellence. Organizations with participative rather than authoritarian cultures, and organic rather than mechanistic or highly stratified structures, produce efficacious public relations. Symmetrical, dialogical systems of internal communication and high levels of job satisfaction also contribute to excellent public relations.
• 8.
  Embodying diversity, particularly in relation to the status of women in a female-dominated profession, was the next excellence factor. Researchers hypothesized that [Page 308]a diverse public relations department could better understand and represent diverse publics in the organization's environment. The study revealed that organizations that treat women well do so across the board, in career advancement opportunities, nondiscriminatory policies, a supportive work environment, and so on. The team concluded that treating female employees well is a characteristic of excellence.

These factors of excellence can be applied broadly to improve almost any public relations unit. However, they revealed what was statistically significant and did not reveal every desirable trait of normative public relations. Subsequently, based on qualitative research, a final factor of excellence was added to the list: ethics. Dejan Vercčicč wrote that the final principle of excellent public relations was “ethics and integrity” (1996, p. 58). Shannon Bowen's research reinforced the importance of an organizational commitment to ethical decision making as a crucial factor of public relations excellence. Organizations with a rigorous ethics training program and codified decision-making paradigm or model were more excellent than those that simply attempted to be ethical without investing resources in defining, training, and analyzing ethics.

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