Discourse Theory

There are numerous strands of discourse theory, each offering a competing definition and focus of study. The two principal strands comprise linguistically oriented theories and socially oriented theories. These two strands can in turn be divided between those theorists who take a critical approach and those who do not. For the field of public relations, the most promising school of discourse theory in terms of its application to the field's objects of study is to be found in the area of critical discourse analysis (CDA). CDA draws upon both linguistic and social theory and, as the name suggests, is critical in its perspective.

CDA is the application of critical theory to discourse and the creation of new critical theory relevant to discourse. It involves the analysis of texts in their sociocultural context. It may be distinguished from noncritical forms of discourse analysis by its inclusion of the concept of power as a central analytical lens. CDA involves a detailed examination and description of discourse, but it also moves beyond description in attempting to explain social phenomena. It is the explanatory dimension of CDA that distinguishes it from other, noncritical forms of discourse analysis. It is also this explanatory dimension that renders CDA a useful tool for both the analysis and conduct of public relations practice.

According to Norman Fairclough, there are three elements to CDA. The first element is a focus on texts. Initially, within CDA, texts were viewed as written language, including transcripts of spoken language. However, there has been increasing emphasis within CDA upon other elements of text, such as pictures and sound. Although the primary focus remains upon language, these additional elements are now routinely included in the analysis of texts. There are numerous established methods for textual analysis, including both quantitative and qualitative approaches. There are also computer programs such as NUDIST that assist with the organization of qualitative data. These programs are particularly suited for research projects involving large texts or large numbers of texts. The selection of a method is guided by the objectives of the study. For example, Fairclough favors close textual analysis derived from linguistics, which enables a detailed deconstruction of texts.

The second element of CDA is the analysis of the discursive practices associated with the production, distribution, and interpretation of texts. These practices may be institutional, social, and personal. For example, the sending of a birthday card may be a personal interaction, but it may also be an institutional interaction between a business and its clients. The creation of the card message may involve a professional writer and a manufacturer who then distributes the card through retailers. Alternatively the card may be created by a child and personally handed to a parent. These alternative discourse practices are central to the meaning that is then derived from the card by its recipient. Discourse practices, then, actively contribute to the production of meaning.

The third element of CDA is the analysis of the sociocultural practices that provide the context for the discourse practices associated with texts. This element of CDA draws on critical social theory for its analytical frameworks. Louis Althusser, Michel Foucault, Antonio Gramsci, and Stuart Hall are some of the major social theorists whose work underpins critical discourse theory generally and CDA in particular. From Althusser, CDA derives the view that ideas can circulate within society and ideologies can operate in ways that are relatively independent of the economic base of that society. Thus, when public relations practitioners attempt to [Page 258]change the way an idea or activity is perceived, they are demonstrating an Althusserian approach to the production of ideas.

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