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Police Use of Force
Police use of force is the application in a law enforcement capacity of physical or psychological coercion against citizens. Under the law, police officers have the authority to use force for enforcing laws, preventing criminal activity, defending others, and defending themselves. They have the discretionary power to use different degrees of force against citizens who choose to violate the law. Forceful responses can range from officer presence to the use of weapons. One approach to understanding forceful responses against citizens is psychological. There is psychological knowledge bearing on (a) how officers formulate and carry out their decisions to use force by encoding situational information, making a decision to act, developing a plan of action, and initiating action; (b) how officers' involvement in a force situation puts them at risk of experiencing stress that causes unfavorable changes in their perception and memory; (c) how police candidates with particular personality traits are at risk of on-the-job problems with using force; and (d) how officers whose job-related experiences involve traumatic force situations are vulnerable to developing behaviors that lead to the use of excessive force.
Decision Making
An officer formulates and carries out a decision to use force against a citizen by encoding situational information, making a decision to act, developing a plan of action, and initiating action.
Encoding Situational Information. Encoding is a process in which the officer attends to situational conditions. It involves the sensory register, the first structure of the officer's memory system. The sensory register is responsible for registering all features of the force situation through sensory functions—for example, seeing a citizen holding a gun, hearing a gunshot, and smelling gunfire. Sensory systems keep the officer informed about the force situation. They extract information and convert it to electrical impulses that travel to the thalamus, which is located in the diencephalon of the brain. The thalamus directs sensory input to associated cortex areas of the brain, where the officer becomes aware of sensation and interprets it.
Making a Decision to Act. Making a decision to act takes place in the officer's short-term memory. The officer consciously discriminates, selects, and attends to sensations that are most dangerous, while reducing attention to less dangerous information. The officer considers the magnitude of the force situation and the probability of harm occurring if he or she takes no protective or enforcement action. What researchers know with confidence is that officers consider citizen behavior most important when making decisions to use force. A need to use force triggers cognitive events that help the officer develop a best plan of action. If the officer fails to pay attention to important sensory input, his or her plan of action will be less than optimal.
The limbic system is associated with making a decision to act in response to situational demands. It surrounds the upper brainstem and consists of interconnected neural structures, which include the amygdala and the hippocampus. The amygdala helps regulate emotion, and it contributes to the officer's drive to act. The hippocampus is responsible for memory storage. It gives the officer access to experience when making a decision to act.
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- Georgia Court Competence Test (GCCT)
- Grisso's Instruments for Assessing Understanding and Appreciation of Miranda Rights
- Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales
- Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV)
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- HCR–20 for Violence Risk Assessment
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- Miller Forensic Assessment of Symptoms Test (M–FAST)
- Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory–III (MCMI–III)
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- Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 (MMPI–2) Validity Scales
- Minnesota Sex Offender Screening Tool–Revised (MnSOST–R)
- Novaco Anger Scale
- Parent-Child Relationship Inventory (PCRI)
- Parenting Satisfaction Scale (PSS)
- Parenting Stress Index (PSI)
- Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles
- Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI)
- Rapid Risk Assessment for Sexual Offense Recidivism (RRASOR)
- Risk-Sophistication-Treatment Inventory (RSTI)
- Rogers Criminal Responsibility Assessment Scales (R–CRAS)
- Sex Offender Needs Assessment Rating (SONAR)
- Sex Offender Risk Appraisal Guide (SORAG)
- Sexual Violence Risk–20 (SVR–20)
- Short-Term Assessment of Risk and Treatability (START)
- Spousal Assault Risk Assessment (SARA)
- STABLE–2007 and ACUTE–2007 Instruments
- STATIC–99 and STATIC–2002 Instruments
- Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY)
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- Jail Screening Assessment Tool (JSAT)
- MacArthur Violence Risk Assessment Study
- Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument–Version 2 (MAYSI–2)
- Minnesota Sex Offender Screening Tool–Revised (MnSOST–R)
- Novaco Anger Scale
- Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI)
- Psychopathy
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- Rapid Risk Assessment for Sexual Offense Recidivism (RRASOR)
- Risk Assessment Approaches
- Sex Offender Assessment
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- Sex Offender Needs Assessment Rating (SONAR)
- Sex Offender Recidivism
- Sex Offender Risk Appraisal Guide (SORAG)
- Sexual Violence Risk–20 (SVR–20)
- Short-Term Assessment of Risk and Treatability (START)
- Spousal Assault Risk Assessment (SARA)
- STABLE–2007 and ACUTE–2007 Instruments
- STATIC–99 and STATIC–2002 Instruments
- Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY)
- Substance Abuse and Intimate Partner Violence
- Substance Use Disorders
- Violence Risk Appraisal Guide (VRAG)
- Violence Risk Assessment
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