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Total Quality Management
Introduction
This entry is intended to describe in general terms Total Quality Management, discuss some international movements to implement TQM, and focus on the European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) Model of Excellence as a practical tool for implementation through the assessment of performance of a psychological organization. All of these models sponsor different yearly Prizes and Awards on Excellence or Total Quality Management.
In order to introduce the reader gradually into the field, we shall cover, in sequence, the basis of Total Quality Management, the content of some of the international models focusing on the EFQM, a summary of the content of the model (criteria and attributes), aspects on self-assessment and performance improvement, and our views and perspectives for the future.
Essential Ideas behind Total Quality Management
Total Quality Management deals with managing with quality all functions of the organization. Managing with quality means meeting stakeholders' needs (with emphasis in the customer) through self-assessment, continuously improving efficiency and effectiveness.
Consequently, we could define TQM as a management strategy, based on self-assessment, focused in the customer, continuously improving all activities of all functions through the integration of the employees, and the personal assumption and evaluation of their responsibilities.
From the early artisan times, quality has evolved to Total Quality in the 1980s, but it followed a long journey (Teboul, J., 1991):
- 1930 Statistical control
- 1940 Acceptance plans
- 1950 Reliability and quality control
- 1960 Cost of quality, prevention
- 1960 to 1970 Involvement of everyone (Deming, E.W., 1982), problem analysis (Juran, J.M., 1989) and zero defects (Crosby, P.B., 1979)
- 1980 TQM starts
Let us examine a series of principles which provide the basic philosophy of Total Quality Management. Later in this entry, you will have the opportunity to observe how these principles are structured in the EFQM Model.
Continuous Improvement Based on Self-Assessment for Learning and Innovating
The basic principle is that every activity is subject to improvement, and to be able to do that it is necessary to learn and apply this knowledge to innovate. This process has to be implemented through self-assessment.
The useful cycle used in science and industry applies: first you observe the results of any specific experience; second you reflect on these results; third you check or verify if your initial assumptions were met and, as a consequence, you learn; finally you take action either to correct towards the direction you want to take or you change your objective.
People Involvement and Implication
The improvement is not possible without the active participation of the people involved, who self-assess and assess the organization. Certainly, implication of management at all levels is needed, but the key to success is the involvement of the employees in the organization.
To do that, people training and development is a basic requirement; but empowerment by delegating authority and recognizing people when they contribute to improvement are ways to achieve employee implication.
Leadership
Leadership, which is ‘an attempt at influencing the activities of followers to willingly cooperate through the communication process toward the attainment of some goal or goals’ (Fleishman & Hunt, 1973: 3), is a complementary requirement to the above. It should be understood at all levels in the organization, even at the personal level: the identification of everyone with the concept that improvement will not be achieved without his or her participation.
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- 1. Theory and Methodology
- Ambulatory Assessment
- Assessment Process
- Assessor's Bias
- Automated Test Assembly Systems
- Classical and Modern Item Analysis
- Classical Test Theory
- Classification (General, including Diagnosis)
- Criterion-Referenced Testing: Methods and Procedures
- Cross-Cultural Assessment
- Decision (including Decision Theory)
- Diagnosis of Mental and Behavioural Disorders
- Diagnostic Testing in Educational Settings
- Dynamic Assessment (Learning Potential Testing, Testing the Limits)
- Ethics
- Evaluability Assessment
- Evaluation: Programme Evaluation (General)
- Explanation
- Factor Analysis: Confirmatory
- Factor Analysis: Exploratory
- Formats for Assessment
- Generalizability Theory
- History of Psychological Assessment
- Intelligence Assessment through Cohort and Time
- Item Banking
- Item Bias
- Item Response Theory: Models and Features
- Latent Class Analysis
- Multidimensional Item Response Theory
- Multidimensional Scaling Methods
- Multimodal Assessment (including Triangulation)
- Multitrait-Multimethod Matrices
- Needs Assessment
- Norm-Referenced Testing: Methods and Procedures
- Objectivity
- Outcome Assessment/Treatment Assessment
- Person/Situation (Environment) Assessment
- Personality Assessment through Longitudinal Designs
- Prediction (General)
- Prediction: Clinical vs. Statistical
- Qualitative Methods
- Reliability
- Report (General)
- Reporting Test Results in Education
- Self-Presentation Measurement
- Self-Report Distortions (including Faking, Lying, Malingering, Social Desirability)
- Test Adaptation/Translation Methods
- Test User Competence/Responsible Test Use
- Theoretical Perspective: Cognitive
- Theoretical Perspective: Cognitive-Behavioural
- Theoretical Perspective: Constructivism
- Theoretical Perspective: Psychoanalytic
- Theoretical Perspective: Psychological Behaviourism
- Theoretical Perspective: Psychometrics
- Theoretical Perspective: Systemic
- Trait-State Models
- Utility
- Validity (General)
- Validity: Construct
- Validity: Content
- Validity: Criterion-Related
- 2. Methods, Tests and Equipment
- Adaptive and Tailored Testing
- Analogue Methods
- Autobiography
- Behavioural Assessment Techniques
- Brain Activity Measurement
- Case Formulation
- Coaching Candidates to Score Higher on Tests
- Computer-Based Testing
- Equipment for Assessing Basic Processes
- Field Survey: Protocols Development
- Goal Attainment Scaling (GAS)
- Idiographic Methods
- Interview (General)
- Interview in Behavioural and Health Settings
- Interview in Child and Family Settings
- Interview in Work and Organizational Settings
- Neuropsychological Test Batteries
- Observational Methods (General)
- Observational Techniques in Clinical Settings
- Observational Techniques in Work and Organizational Settings
- Projective Techniques
- Psychoeducational Test Batteries
- Psychophysiological Equipment and Measurements
- Self-Observation (Self-Monitoring)
- Self-Report Questionnaires
- Self-Reports (General)
- Self-Reports in Behavioural Clinical Settings
- Self-Reports in Work and Organizational Settings
- Socio-Demographic Conditions
- Sociometric Methods
- Standard for Educational and Psychological Testing
- Subjective Methods
- Test Accommodations for Disabilities
- Test Anxiety
- Test Designs: Developments
- Test Directions and Scoring
- Testing through the Internet
- Unobtrusive Measures
- 3. Personality
- Anxiety Assessment
- Attachment
- Attitudes
- Attribution Styles
- Big Five Model Assessment
- Burnout Assessment
- Cognitive Styles
- Coping Styles
- Emotions
- Empowerment
- Interest
- Leadership Personality
- Locus of Control
- Motivation
- Optimism
- Person/Situation (Environment) Assessment
- Personal Constructs
- Personality Assessment (General)
- Personality Assessment through Longitudinal Designs
- Prosocial Behaviour
- Self-Control
- Self-Efficacy
- Self-Presentation Measurement
- Self, The (General)
- Sensation Seeking
- Social Competence (including Social Skills, Assertion)
- Temperament
- Time Orientation
- Trait-State Models
- Values
- Weil-Being (including Life Satisfaction)
- 4. Intelligence
- Attention
- Cognitive Ability: g Factor
- Cognitive Ability: Multiple Cognitive Abilities
- Cognitive Decline/Impairment
- Cognitive Plasticity
- Cognitive Processes: Current Status
- Cognitive Processes: Historical Perspective
- Cognitive/Mental Abilities in Work and Organizational Settings
- Creativity
- Dynamic Assessment (Learning Potential Testing, Testing the Limits)
- Emotional Intelligence
- Equipment for Assessing Basic Processes
- Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
- Intelligence Assessment (General)
- Intelligence Assessment through Cohort and Time
- Language (General)
- Learning Disabilities
- Memory (General)
- Mental Retardation
- Practical Intelligence: Conceptual Aspects
- Practical Intelligence: Its Measurement
- Problem Solving
- Triarchic Intelligence Components
- Wisdom
- 5. Clinical and Health
- Anger, Hostility and Aggression Assessment
- Antisocial Disorders Assessment
- Anxiety Assessment
- Anxiety Disorders Assessment
- Applied Behavioural Analysis
- Applied Fields: Clinical
- Applied Fields: Gerontology
- Applied Fields: Health
- Caregiver Burden
- Child and Adolescent Assessment in Clinical Settings
- Clinical Judgement
- Coping Styles
- Counselling, Assessment in
- Couple Assessment in Clinical Settings
- Dangerous/Violence Potential Behaviour
- Dementia
- Diagnosis of Mental and Behavioural Disorders
- Dynamic Assessment (Learning Potential Testing, Testing the Limits)
- Eating Disorders
- Health
- Identity Disorders
- Interview in Behavioural and Health Settings
- Irrational Beliefs
- Learning Disabilities
- Mental Retardation
- Mood Disorders
- Observational Techniques in Clinical Settings
- Outcome Assessment/Treatment Assessment
- Palliative Care
- Prediction: Clinical vs. Statistical
- Psychoneuroimmunology
- Quality of Life
- Self-Observation (Self-Monitoring)
- Self-Reports in Behavioural Clinical Settings
- Social Competence (including Social Skills, Assertion)
- Stress
- Substance Abuse
- Test Anxiety
- Thinking Disorders Assessment
- Type A: A Proposed Psychosocial Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Diseases
- Type C: A Proposed Psychosocial Risk Factor for Cancer
- 6. Educational and Child Assessment
- Achievement Testing
- Applied Fields: Education
- Child Custody
- Children with Disabilities
- Coaching Candidates to Score Higher on Tests
- Cognitive Psychology and Assessment Practices
- Communicative Language Abilities
- Development (General)
- Development: Intelligence/Cognitive
- Development: Language
- Development: Psychomotor
- Development: Socio-Emotional
- Diagnostic Testing in Educational Settings
- Dynamic Assessment (Learning Potential Testing, Testing the Limits)
- Evaluation in Higher Education
- Giftedness
- Instructional Strategies
- Interview in Child and Family Settings
- Item Banking
- Learning Strategies
- Performance
- Performance Standards: Constructed Response Item Formats
- Performance Standards: Selected Response Item Formats
- Planning
- Planning Classroom Tests
- Pre-School Children
- Psychoeducational Test Batteries
- Reporting Test Results in Education
- Standard for Educational and Psychological Testing
- Test Accommodations for Disabilities
- Test Directions and Scoring
- Testing in the Second Language in Minorities
- 7. Work and Organizations
- Achievement Motivation
- Applied Fields: Forensic
- Applied Fields: Organizations
- Applied Fields: Work and Industry
- Career and Personnel Development
- Centres (Assessment Centres)
- Cognitive/Mental Abilities in Work and Organizational Settings
- Empowerment
- Interview in Work and Organizational Settings
- Job Characteristics
- Job Stress
- Leadership in Organizational Settings
- Leadership Personality
- Motor Skills in Work Settings
- Observational Techniques in Work and Organizational Settings
- Organizational Culture
- Performance
- Personnel Selection, Assessment in
- Physical Abilities in Work Settings
- Risk and Prevention in Work and Organizational Settings
- Self-Reports in Work and Organizational Settings
- Total Quality Management
- 8. Neurophysiopsychological Assessment
- Applied Fields: Neuropsychology
- Applied Fields: Psychophysiology
- Brain Activity Measurement
- Dementia
- Equipment for Assessing Basic Processes
- Executive Functions Disorders
- Memory Disorders
- Neuropsychological Test Batteries
- Outcome Evaluation in Neuropsychological Rehabilitation
- Psychoneuroimmunology
- Psychophysiological Equipment and Measurements
- Visuo-Perceptual Impairments
- Voluntary Movement
- 9. Environmental Assessment
- Behavioural Settings and Behaviour Mapping
- Cognitive Maps
- Couple Assessment in Clinical Settings
- Environmental Attitudes and Values
- Family
- Landscapes and Natural Environments
- Life Events
- Organizational Structure, Assessment of
- Perceived Environmental Quality
- Person/Situation (Environment) Assessment
- Post-Occupancy Evaluation for the Built Environment
- Residential and Treatment Facilities
- Social Climate
- Social Networks
- Social Resources
- Stressors: Physical
- Stressors: Social
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