Self-Control

Introduction

Self-control skills consist of self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and self-administered reinforcement. Self-control is also referred to as self-instruction, self-management, learned resourcefulness, lifestyle organization, and controlled reinforcement is delayed or absent. There are at least four self-report instruments that have been developed to assess self-control skills. Some instruments measure the components of self-control and related skills while others measure behavioural outcomes of self-control. The psychometric characteristics of each instrument will be summarized and recommendations for future instrument development will be discussed.

Assessment of Self-Control

Kanfer (1970, 1977; Kanfer & Karoly, 1972) defined self-control as a repertoire of three self-regulating behaviours including self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement. According to this definition, the individual monitors a behaviour targeted for change or maintenance. The target behaviour can be overt (e.g. eating) or covert (e.g. thoughts and emotions). The individual then compares the target behaviour to an internalized standard and identifies discrepancies. Based on this comparison, the individual engages in self-reinforcement or self-punishment, which subsequently influences whether further self-monitoring and self-evaluation will occur and whether the target behaviour is modified or maintained. Self-control skills are deemed essential when environmentally controlled reinforcement is delayed or absent.

Self-control is achieved when the individual is able to initiate and persist in a low probability target behaviour (e.g. exercising) as opposed to a competing higher probability behaviour (e.g. watching television). Also, the target behaviour must be maintained without immediate environmental reinforcement. For example, exercising regularly on one's own reflects self-control, whereas exercising only when a coach is prodding, praising, or criticizing does not.

Various definitions of self-control and related constructs have been proposed that differ from that originally proposed by Kanfer. Alternative constructs that have appeared in the self-control literature include self-regulation, self-instruction, lifestyle organization, and learned resourcefulness (see Table 1).

Self-regulation (Bandura, 1986, 1991; Kanfer & Schefft, 1988) consists of the three self-control behaviours proposed by Kanfer (i.e. self-monitoring, self-evaluation, self-reinforcement), as well as self-efficacy beliefs. Self-efficacy refers to an individuaL's belief about one's personal effectiveness and, according to Bandura (1991), these beliefs influence whether and in what manner self-control will be implemented.

Self-instruction (Meichenbaum, 1977) refers to the internalization of self-directive speech and involves self-monitoring of self-statements and the use of alternative, self-reinforcing statements. Unlike Kanfer's conceptualization of self-control, however, self-instruction does not involve the evaluation of one's behaviour according to internalized standards.

Lifestyle organization is defined as setting ‘goals for oneself and then systematically using cognitive and behavioural strategies to reach those goals’ (Williams, Moore, Pettibone & Thomas, 1992: 217). This conceptualization appears to implicitly incorporate Kanfer's three self-directive aspects of self-control including self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement. Lifestyle organization also refers to other cognitive and behavioural strategies including awareness of lifetime goals and solicitation of feedback from others.

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