Instructional Strategies

Introduction

Teaching, or instruction, has been defined as ‘anything that is done to facilitate purposeful learning’ (Reigeluth, 2000: 20). The assessment of teaching, then, needs to be referred to the process it aims to stimulate, i.e. learning, and the actions which may be taken to foster it. A variety [Page 462]of theories of learning have been proposed among which cognitive constructivist theories have been prevalent for some decades now. Important differences can be found among them, which come along significant differences in instructional theories. However, for brevity purposes we shall focus here on their common points. The main assumptions of constructivist theories hold that knowledge cannot be passed on from one mind to the other but needs instead integrating new information with existing knowledge and has to be constructed through experience. It could then be concluded that teaching consists of organizing experiences which facilitate and demand knowledge construction. Different theories emphasize either the cognitive processes of skill and knowledge acquisition, the social processes which support the growth of individual knowledge or the specific features of the learning tasks or environments which help learning to occur. In fact, a combination of these elements is present in most current theories of learning and should be taken into account in instructional theory.

Next, we shall review some approaches which suggest relevant variables in teaching around which assessment might take place, then discuss some general rules of assessment and finally mention some assessment methods.

Constructivist theories highlight different paths that teachers may use to stimulate students' learning. If we consider the richness of these theories together with the dramatic sociocultural and technological changes affecting teaching and learning in modern societies, the resulting picture is quite complex. As a result, good teaching may adopt different forms depending on context, learner characteristics and content knowledge.

To enhance significant cognitive activity different strategies have been suggested such as structuring and signalling materials in a way which fosters students' structuring, elaboration and organization of information (Mayer, 2000). Performance and error analyses have also been proposed as a means to help overcome misunderstandings, and giving appropriate and timely feedback also stands out as a crucial activity to promote understanding. Worked examples have been shown to be helpful to understanding and, finally, alternative assessment, including self-assessment, seems to be a powerful method to foster higher thinking abilities.

It is generally accepted that social exchanges stimulate learning and conceptual change and strengthen motivation and emotional support. Two kinds of social interactions are relevant: teacher-learner interaction and close observation along task performance will allow assessing students' prior knowledge, diagnose their state of knowledge and give appropriate feedback. Students' interaction with other students in cooperative or collaborative tasks will also help them elaborate and refine their knowledge and keep their motivation high.

Finally, the design of tasks or environments which stimulate learning is another hallmark of good teaching (Jonassen & Land, 2000). The main assumption is that learning is promoted through problem solving so that features of tasks and environments created with this purpose need to be analysed in detail. The common features of good learning environments seem to be authenticity, complexity and variety. Scaffolding along tasks is needed and can be assisted by computerized systems such as expert tutors (Collins, Brown & Newman, 1989).

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