Cognitive Styles

A Definition

CS refer to a person's habitual, prevalent, or preferred mode of perceiving, memorizing, learning, judging, decision-making, problem-solving. Individual differences about how people carry out tasks involving these functions may constitute a style if they appear to be:

• pervasive; that is, they emerge consistently in different contexts, independently of the particular features of situation;
• stable; that is, they are always the same at different times.

CS induce persons to adopt similar attitudes and behaviours in a variety of domains; they concern in fact general approaches in mental functioning, irrespective of the incidental demands of specific cases.

CS differ from abilities because the latter are measured in terms of level of performance whereas the former in terms of manner of performance. Abilities are uni-polar dimensions while styles are bi- or multi-polar. Finally most styles, but not abilities, are neutral in terms of value and desirability (a style cannot be absolutely ‘good’; its relevance depends on the features of the situation and on the individual's goals).

CS can be conceptualized as a cross-road of thinking, personality, and motivation. In fact they concern the kind of strategies which an individual tends to apply when he/she faces a situation or the preferred way of processing information. CS are also grounded in the deep psychological structure of a person and in his/her basic orientation and affective disposition toward reality. Furthermore, CS are linked to the kind of purposes and expectations which people develop in their life.

Historical Trends

Research on CS began in the 1950s at the Menninger Foundation and concerned the topic of ‘cognitive control’, a construct which deals with mediation between the ego and the demands of inner needs. Seven profiles were identified: tolerance for unrealistic experience, conceptual differentiation, constricted-flexible control, levelling-sharpening, scanning, contrast reactivity, field articulation. These early styles as well as field dependence-independence (see below) which was proposed at about the same period – were measured prevalently by means of perceptual probes and by considering the outcomes of the cognitive process. Observation of behaviour during tasks and analysis of how subjects performed tasks were introduced in the 1960s; styles – such as tolerant-intolerant, complexity-simplicity, risk taking-caution-went beyond cognition and were related to personality. In the 1970s and 1980s a variety of bi-polar styles emerged; the tendency was to identify styles integrating differences in thinking processes and in attitudes, emotions, and interpersonal relationships and to use quick measures such as those provided by self-administered questionnaires. Finally, in the 1990s doubts were raised about the bi-polarity of styles and complex, multi-dimensional constructs were proposed. For instance, Sternberg (1997) analysed styles in terms of function (legislative, executive, or judicial), form (monarchic, hierarchic, oligarchic, or anarchic), level (global or local), scope (internal or external), use (producing or consuming), and leaning (conservative or progressive). The combination of these dimensions produces fifteen different styles.

...