Achievement Testing

Introduction

Achievement testing plays a central role in education, particularly given the current context of high-stakes educational reform seen in countries like the United States. This entry provides a brief overview of achievement testing beginning with a description of its role in education. Different types of achievement tests, commonly used derived scores, recent advances such as performance assessments, and future directions are described (Hambleton & Zaal, 1991).

Achievement Testing and its Role

Achievement tests are designed to measure the knowledge and skills that individuals learn in a relatively well-defined area through formal or informal educational experiences. Thus, achievement tests include tests designed by teachers for use in the classroom and standardized tests developed by school districts, states, national and international organizations, and commercial test publishers.

Achievement tests have been used for: (a) summative purposes such as measuring student achievement, assigning grades, grade promotion and evaluation of competency, comparing student achievement across states and nations, and evaluating the effectiveness of teachers, programmes, districts, and states in accountability programmes; (b) formative purposes such as identifying student strengths and weaknesses, motivating students, teachers, and administrators to seek higher levels of performance, and informing educational policy; and (c) placement and diagnostic purposes such as selecting and placing students, and diagnosing learning disabilities, giftedness, and other special needs.

The most controversial uses of achievement testing have been in high-stakes accountability programmes and minimum competency testing (MCT). Accountability practices vary and may include financial rewards for improved [Page 6]performance to providing remediation for students who perform poorly to sanctions such as public hearings, staff dismissals, and dissolution of districts. Two negative consequences that have been associated with high-stakes accountability include a pattern of inflated achievement results as highlighted by Cannell's (1988) finding that all states were reporting that their students were scoring above the national norm (Lake Wobegon effect), and the narrowing of instruction or ‘teaching to the test’ so that student scores compare favourably to norms.

MCT programmes were implemented in response to concerns about high levels of illiteracy and innumeracy and subsequent poor ‘work force readiness’ among high school graduates. In addition to course completion requirements, such programmes require students to pass tests of minimal basic skills (usually in reading, writing, and arithmetic) to graduate from high school. Legal cases such as Debra P. vs. Turlington raised questions about what constitutes minimum competency, whether the skills assessed are reflected in school curriculum, and whether students have been given adequate opportunity to learn the skills required (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997).

Standardized Achievement Tests

Standardized tests may be classified using the overlapping categories of purpose, breadth, administration, item format, and interpretation.