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Sykes, Gresham

Gresham Sykes is remembered largely because of his classic study, The Society of Captives (1958), in which he examined the social system of the prison environment. This book was one of the first comprehensive attempts to study the role of the prison from a sociological perspective. In it, Sykes expanded the body of knowledge surrounding prison research to include not only the role of authority but also that of the incarcerated in the creation of an “operating social system” (Sykes, 1958, p. vii).

The Society of Captives

The Society of Captives is based on Sykes's study of the New Jersey State Maximum Security Prison in Trenton, in which he sought to establish how social order was created and maintained from the perspective of the administrators as well as the inmates. Sykes examined the underlying philosophical goals of imprisonment, as well as how these beliefs translated into the social organization of the prison. In researching the social structures created and maintained by inmates, Sykes identified certain deprivations that inmates suffer when incarcerated in prisons. According to him, these “pains” are a direct result of the imprisonment of inmates. While society's goal is to separate and punish the offenders for their actions, the mere act of imprisonment itself inflicts pain upon the incarcerated individual. Sykes is careful to point out that these “pains” involve a psychological reaction to the deprivations experienced during incarceration.

In all, Sykes (1958, pp. 65–77) identified five “deprivations” that all inmates suffer during their incarceration: losses of liberty, goods and services, heterosexual relationships, autonomy, and security. The deprivation of liberty involves not only the physical loss of freedom but also the psychological loss of contact with family, friends, and the community. The loss of goods and services again extends beyond the mere restriction of inmates to certain physical items to encompass the feelings associated with the loss of control over the selection and utilization of such goods and services. When access to heterosexual relationships is halted, Sykes argued, inmates often experience an identity crisis, become more aggressive, and begin to internalize feelings of worthlessness. The fourth deprivation identified by Sykes involves issues of autonomy. Inmates are expected to adhere to a number of rules governing conduct without questioning them. The loss of control and freedom leads to an increased loss of self-identity, which can have a tremendous psychological impact on the inmates. The last deprivation that Sykes discusses involves personal security. The simple placement of inmates in a prison often makes them arguably susceptible to victimization, either by fellow inmates or by correctional officers (Sykes, 1958, pp. 65–77).

Solidary Opposition

Sykes furthered his ideas about the “pains of imprisonment” in a joint effort with Sheldon Messinger in “The Inmate Social System” (1960). In this work, Sykes and Messinger examined how inmates deal with the “pains of imprisonment.” They suggest that, in an effort to alleviate the effects of incarceration, inmates turn to each other to form a type of “solidarity.” They termed this response “solidary opposition.” In their view, as inmates collectively form a cohesive unit, governed by inmate codes of conduct, the effects of imprisonment become “less severe” (Sykes & Messinger, 1960, p. 11). Sykes expanded his research to address how inmates react to the deprivations they experience in prison. The exploration of the possible methods used by inmates to mitigate the effects of incarceration is an important contribution to the study of prisons. The idea of solidary opposition has lead to the further studies regarding the methods utilized by inmates to mitigate the effects of prisonization, especially those that involve inmate cohesiveness.

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