Propaganda

In colloquial usage, propaganda is a pejorative term applied to forms of mass communication, most commonly those forms employed by those in power to manipulate or influence public consciousness so as to increase or maintain their position of power. The scientific study of propaganda has been hindered by the lack of a uniform or standard definition, which scholars have found difficult to formulate given the enormous differences between types of propaganda that have been identified. The following entry will detail some of the characteristics of conceptualizations of propaganda and highlight some of the types of propaganda that scholars have identified. In addition, the possibility of a scientific analysis of propaganda will be considered.

Scholars have developed concrete definitions of propaganda only reluctantly, and none has been universally adopted and employed in scientific analyses of mass communication. One of the problems in formulating a definition is that the term has traditionally been applied uncritically to forms of communication that the speaker disapproves of. To complicate matters, in some languages the term has a value-neutral or positive connotation; in the English language the term most often has a negative connotation. The lack of a standard definition of the concept has meant that many forms of mass communication have been scrutinized as propaganda regardless of their political context. Unfortunately, it has also precluded falsifiable scientific analysis.

Despite the lack of a standard definition of propaganda, scholars have identified some characteristics that many forms and definitions of propaganda have in common. First, propaganda typically involves promoting the interests of the messenger over the interests of the consumer of information. Second, propaganda tends to evince an indifference to the truthfulness of the messages it conveys; it is valuable insofar as the message is effectively transmitted. In this vein, propaganda often neglects the totality of information in the interest of promoting an ideology, cause, or movement. Third, propaganda typically involves elements of manipulation, deception, or suggestion. Furthermore, in order for a communication to be considered propaganda, this manipulation usually must be conscious on the part of the messenger. Fourth, propaganda is often used as a tool to gain or maintain power, be it political or otherwise. Fifth, propagandists tend to use emotionally charged imagery and wording so that consumers will respond passionately and favorably to their message without scrutinizing the verisimilitude of its intellectual content. Some scholars have also noted that propagandistic messages are often preceded by the imposition of myths or stereotypes that render the consuming audience more receptive. Nazi Germany might be a case in point.

The types of messages that have been considered propaganda vary depending upon who is receiving the message and how it has been communicated. A detailed analysis by Jacques Ellul in 1973 identified and juxtaposed eight different mutually exclusive categories of propaganda that have been used historically. Ellul's formative analysis highlights the degree to which the concept of propaganda does not comport easily with the formulation of a standardized definition. Political propaganda refers to that carried out by an identifiable body (be it a political party, governmental agency, or interest group) that has discrete goals and uses deliberate methods in conveying its messages. Ellul juxtaposed this with sociological propaganda, which does not fit the popular conceptualization of what constitutes propaganda, is not necessarily organized, does not lead to mass action, and is often imperceptible. It circumscribes and creates habits and lifestyles that integrate [Page 537]social life, for example promoting the benefits of the lifestyle endemic to the hippie movement of the 1960s.

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