Neorealism

Neorealism concerns a series of theories with a common hard core of axioms and assumptions on the behavior of states, in particular the major powers, in the international system. Its founding text unquestionably is Kenneth Waltz's Theory of International Politics, which was published in 1979. Neorealism's hard core is the same as that of classical realism, of which Hans Morgenthau's Politics Among Nations is the most representative text. Neorealists and classical realists share a pessimistic view of world politics and are skeptical as to the possibilities of changing things for the better. Neorealists differ from classical realists in that they believe that world political phenomena can be studied and understood with the tools of empirical science.

The message Waltz tried to convey in Theory of International Politics may be summarized in six points.

• 1.
  Scientific theories are not collections of laws to describe empirical phenomena, but attempts to explain why things are as they are.
• 2.
  The theory developed in Theory of International Politics is a systems theory. The universe of possibly relevant phenomena can be divided into phenomena that are relevant to the explanation of international politics and those that are not. The ones that are relevant are considered to be part of a system—in this case, of course, the international system. These phenomena or elements of the system are somehow interrelated. This means that the conduct or state of any one of the elements is influenced by the conduct or state of the other elements. Moreover, as far as these elements are concerned, a distinction must be made between the interacting units (the states) on the one hand and the structure on the other hand. It is this structure that makes it possible to think of the units as forming a set as distinct from a mere collection.
• 3.
  The structure of the international system is defined by the principle by which it is ordered, as well as the distribution of capabilities across the states. Anarchy is the ordering principle or deep structure of the international system. As to the distributional structure, traditionally three types are distinguished: a multipolar structure, which means there are more than two great powers in the international system; a bipolar structure, in which there are two great powers; and a hegemonic or unipolar structure, when there is only one great power. Waltz limited himself to an analysis of the properties of multipolar and bipolar systems.
• 4.
  Waltz's explanatory principle that states wish to survive, combined with the anarchical structure of the international system, leads to the conclusion that balances of power will recurrently form, whether states intend to establish a balance or not, and that balancing, not bandwagoning, is the behavior induced by the system.
• 5.
  Waltz explains that the more uneven the balance of power in the international system, and the smaller the number of great powers or poles in the system, the less dependent in military and economic terms will these poles be on other states and on one another, thus increasing the chances that the system will be stable and peaceful. The international system is [Page 442]a small number system, and “smaller is more beautiful than small.”
• 6.
  This statement also applies to the management of international affairs. The smaller the number of poles, and the more powerful these are, the more they will be prepared to invest in solutions for common problems faced by the states in the international system.

Although Waltz has strongly objected to “putting old and new realists in the same pot,” and distanced himself from attempts by Thomas Christensen and Jack Snyder and Randall Schweller to increase the empirical content of his theory, it is generally agreed among international relations scholars that classical realism, neorealism and its offshoots offensive and defensive realism, as well as the more recent neoclassical realism, can be seen as theories that together constitute a scientific research program in the sense intended by philosopher of science Imre Lakatos. According to Lakatos, a scientific research program is characterized by four elements. It has a hard core, which contains the explanatory principle and some crucial assumptions, as well as a negative heuristic, which tells scientists working in the program not to busy themselves with establishing whether this hard core is true or not. Instead they should develop a protective belt of auxiliary hypotheses around the hard core, and be concerned with inventing, testing, and replacing these auxiliary hypotheses. Finally, the program's positive heuristics provides the researchers with suggestions on how to develop the program, and to strengthen its protective belt.

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